I wish deep sense of gratitude to Dr. K. Narender Reddy, Chairman, Board of Studies, Department of Geology, Kakatiya University (K.U.), Warangal, for his continued encouragement, guidance and freedom during the progress of work. It was really a great pleasure to work under such a warm and ever helpful Guide.

I express thanks to Prof. V. Madhavan, Head, Department of Geology, K.U., Prof. Padmanabha Rao, Dean, Faculty of Science, K.U. and Dr. K. Niranjan Kumar and Dr. K. David, Asst. Professors, Dept. of Geology, K.U., for their co-operation during the study.

I am very much thankful to Prof. K. Purushotham Reddy, Head, Department of Political science, O.U., for motivating me to work on environmental problems and also for all the help rendered by him during the research work. I am grateful to Late Shri V.R. Reddy, Director, DDS, Hyderabad for getting me involved in National Environmental Awareness Campaign (NEAC), and on other various environmental issues, the participation helped me in understanding the intricacies of environment.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. S.D. Bhadrinath, Senior Deputy Director (Retd.), NEERI, for his valuable suggestions and comments during the final stages of the thesis. I express my thanks to Dr. U.V. Bhaskar Reddy, Dept. of Geochemistry, O.U., for providing me with statistical package (SYSTAT) and for all the help during the work. Thanks to Dr. P. Venkat Reddy, Professor in Zoology and Dr. V.S. Raju, Associate Professor in Botany, of K.U. for their helpful discussion and comments on Biological Environment. Thanks are also to Dr. Biksham G., Manager, Fresh Water, WWF (Geneva), Prof. Y. Anjaneyulu, JNTU, Hyderabad, Dr. Nagi Reddy Archealogy and Museums, Hyderabad and Dr. Kishan Rao of Patancheru, received their help at various stages of my thesis work. With Shri. K. Ashok Reddy, Advocate, I had the pleasure of sharing and learning the legal aspects of environmental issues for which I am grateful to him.

I am thankful to Dr. D.D. Basu, Senior Scientist, Dr. R.C. Trivedi, Senior Scientist and Mr. N.S. Babu, Asst. Env. Engineer of CPCB, New Delhi, during the Impact assessment and performance evaluation of Bollaram and Patancheru industrial area (Jan 18-24, 1998), as part of the study team, in their company I could learn and share several things on environment. Thanks are also to Mr.Surendra Raj, Senior Engineer, Mr.N.B.Ramesh, Scientist, Mr.Ramesh Chandra, Mr.Prasad, Mr.Veeranna and other staff members of APPCB, with them collected the samples (August ’97) and for all the information provided by them.

I am grateful to my friends Dr. Satish C. Jayanthi, Scientist, NRSA, Mr. G. Santosh Reddy, Yegna Envirochem Labs, Mr. D. Narasimha Reddy, Center for Resource Education and Mr. Navneeth Reddy for their valuable suggestions and criticism during the final stages of writing the thesis.

I wish to say special thanks to my friends M. Prashanth (for his help through out the research work), and to D.V.M. Prabhakara Rao, Poorna, Sudhir, Kalyan, Srisailam, Yugesh, Giridhar and Uma for all their help at various stages of my research work.

I acknowledge the blessings of Prof. K. V. Subba Rao, Dept of Earth Sciences, IIT, Bombay. I am thankful to Vasantha, Jagga Reddy, Carmen, Vikram, and A.M. for their best wishes and encouragement.

I express my love and thanks to those thousands of indigenous population who are victims of environmental pollution, residing in Nakkavagu basin, as their cause was my problem for thesis. I also express my indebtedness to many of them unknown to me personally, who first spoke on reckless and irresponsible poisoning of this fragile planet a home for millions of species including man.

Without these friends my work would have been difficult, thanks to Sashidhar Reddy for getting me a good Computer, K. Venkateshwar Rao and Balram for their excellent Xeroxing. Thanks to the staff of Kakatiya University, Venu, Rajitha, Upender, Sarangapani, Ameer and Saraiah for all the help during the research period.

Good and latest books are important especially when the subject is new, The British Library, Hyderabad had been a great source for most of the literature on Environmental Sciences, for which I am grateful to the management and staff of The British Library.

I acknowledge C.S.I.R, New Delhi, for all the financial assistance under JRF (1995-97) and SRF (1997-99) and contingency fund for research in Earth Sciences.

Finally I express my thanks to my parents who gave all the freedom in my life and also for their support, encouragement and their belief in me. I am grateful to my other family members Sisters, Brothers-in-law and Nieces (Dolly and Bunny) for all the encouragement during my research work.

Date: (N. Sai Bhaskar Reddy)

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The Nakkavagu basin has been thoroughly studied for Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) by considering the physical, biological, socio-economic and cultural, and water environments. Based on the studies and discussions made in the preceding chapters the following conclusions are drawn and certain mitigation measures are suggested.

8.1 CONCLUSIONS

1. Industrial activities including infrastructure and other associated developmental activities are concentrated in certain zones especially to the south-eastern quadrant of the basin. Polluted effluents and noxious gases being released and hazardous solid waste being dumped in the region. Consequently, physical, chemical and biological nature of surface environment was altered by these industries. Accumulation of pollutants over a period of time and with the expansion of existing industries coupled with the establishment of new industries in the region increased the impacts of pollution on the inhabitants of Nakkavagu basin.

2. The surface water and groundwater of Nakkavagu basin is polluted. Large traces of toxic elements like Hg, As, Se and Pb and high values of TDS, BOD and COD found in the polluted waters of Nakkavagu basin confirms this. When these elements in various compounds form get transferred through food chain is dangerous to the life.

3. Effluents in Nakkavagu polluted the groundwater sources around industrial areas and along the course of the streams. The contamination of groundwater resource has affected the agricultural sector. The ground water is polluted to the maximum on either side of the Nakkavagu, to a distance of 500 to 1000m.

4. The increase in the number of anaerobic tanks point to escalation of toxicity levels of the sediments getting deposited by the polluted waters.

5. The high industrial concentration (diverse set of industries) release different byproducts into the stream as hazardous wastes. These pollutants are a threat to the life in Nakkavagu basin.

6. There is a gross misuse of the concept and facility of CETP in Nakkavagu basin. The hazardous sludge’s dumped or consolidated in the open lands by these cost or infrastructure intensive treatment plants stand testimony to this.

7. Increased in-migration rates and corresponding preponderance of natives to agriculture and allied practices indicates that the welfare of local people has not exactly been on the positive side.

8. The loss of biodiversity and the emergence of the dominance of xerophytes such as prosopis juliflora species strongly point to land degradation within no major timeframe.

9. The distribution of various industrial clusters in the study area goes diagonally to the concept of land industrial development mooted by Central and State governments under the name ‘Patancheru industrial area’. The irregular distribution of industrial units irrespective of their nature of operations or requirements at the same place confirm improper execution of the development of Patancheru industrial area.

10. The concept of modern, pollution free industrial development through minimal or nil effluents release is unknown to; the residents of Nakkavagu basin, the industrial entrepreneurs of Nakkavagu basin and the planners and administrators looking after the industrial development in Nakkavagu basin.

8.2 MITIGATIONS

1. Resistant plant species among the indigenous plant species should be identified through research, for planting them all along the polluted streams, on either side. A circular vegetative screen of diverse species should be planted around all the villages so as to decrease dust and air pollution. And all along the village roads a green belt can be raised.

2. Farmlands have become saline and toxic because of the use of polluted waters, which are rich in salts. Reclamation of saline soils is possible by two means: a) treatment of fields with gypsum and b) flooding of fields continuously with unpolluted water. So that the salts and other toxic elements will be washed away with the excess waters. Throughout the year at no time fields should not be exposed to harsh sun, and should be covered with vegetation. If they are exposed, salts from lower levels will move to the surface by capillary action and again form as incrustations.

3. Presently, there are chances of contamination of food crops due to pollution. Instead for the time being, raising commercial crops like jute, cotton, timber plants, etc., should be taken up.

4. The lack of zoning of industries increased the risk of pollution. Zoning the industries by categories the impact of environmental pollution can be reduced. Patancheru has a heterogeneous mix of industries, which complicates the problem of pollution. Effluents from varied industries are being treated at common effluent treatment plants. There is no effective method to treat such a complex of effluents.

5. Solid waste generated in industrial processing should be disposed off safely at secured landfill sites. There is need for creation of such a facility near Patancheru, and right now there is no such facility.

6. Analysis of effluents through parameters like pH, total solids, total suspended solids, total dissolved solids, chlorides, sulphates, COD, BOD, DO, Zn, Cd, Pb, Cr, Cu and few other parameters is not adequate. Organic and synthetic pollutants are a major threat in this area, but are rarely analysed. Therefore Pollution Control Boards (PCB’s) need to be better equipped with effective instruments for better monitoring and evaluation of pollution.

7. Prevention of water pollution is better than remedial action. Prevention of pollution at the source should be given top priority. By taking necessary steps, harm to human health and the environment can be lessened.

8. Industries are releasing untreated or partially treated effluents into the tanks. Such practices should be completely avoided. Catchment area protection and some measures should be taken for recovering the tanks as suggested below:

· Prevention of industrial effluents into the tank, diversion of effluents by laying pipeline system to safer place. Protected, lined sewerage system lessens dispersion of pollutants. This system could follow natural drainage system. And also trenching, bunding and diversion channels across for preventing the effluents entering into tanks from probable drains.

· A green belt covering periphery of the tank beyond full tank level should be maintained.

· Dredging or desilting the polluted tanks, emptying the tanks during summer. Followed by, the whole tank should be subjected to lime treatment. This activity is to be finished before monsoon. Whenever fresh rainwater gets accumulated during the rainy season, indigenous aquatic species of flora and fauna from the unpolluted tanks should be reintroduced, after checking the quality of the water. They should be monitored for one year, before handing it over to the water users committees of the respective villages.

· The sludge removed from the tanks should be safely disposed off as per ‘Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989’.

9. Instead of providing compensation to the farmers in terms of money for crop losses due to pollution, State government should take necessary steps to reclaim the polluted lands and in providing the irrigation facilities from unpolluted sources.

10. Location of industries at Patancheru is never justifiable, as this region is rightly suitable for agriculture. Most polluting industries and all those, which are not complying with the rules under various environmental Acts and Rules, should be closed immediately.

11. Pollution cess should be collected from each polluting industry, right from the inception, so as to compensate the potential victims of pollution and in case of any major industrial hazard.

12. ‘Polluter pays’ principle should be made mandatory to make the polluters responsible. All the polluted villages must be provided free drinking water to cater to the needs of people and their domestic animals, payable by the polluting industries.

13. To monitor the local climate, a meteorological station should be established at Patancheru or Bollaram, in order to measure other than normal parameters like air pollution, acidity of rain, smog etc. The air pollution would also contaminate the hydrological system.

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Environmental impact may be defined as any changes of environmental conditions or creation of a new set of environmental conditions, adverse or beneficial, caused or induced by the action or set of actions under considerations.

Environmental impacts can be of three types as, primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary impacts are the result of direct actions and, secondary and tertiary impacts are indirectly induced and typically include the associated investment and changed patterns of social and economic activities by the proposed action.

All the impacts have been comprehensively assessed or discussed in this section. Many of the impacts were covered in detail in the previous chapters.

7.2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

7.2.1 Geology

a) Granitic terrain of Nakkavagu basin being acidic in nature does not buffer the acidic waters directly released by industries.

b) Joints and fractures in the granites act as conduits for carrying the effluents to far off places.

c) Deep well disposal practice in Nakkavagu basin is not recommendable. As Nakkavagu basin is located over hard rock area (Peninsular granites and gneisses), effluents do not have any chance to penetrate deep into the ground, and get restricted to shallow zones. With the result, groundwater of the area gets polluted.

d) It is possible that some of the pollutants identified in water and soil samples are contributed by the geology of the area. It can be seen that pH of some of the surface water bodies is acidic, which leaches and helps in movement of certain elements. These elements get deposited under favourable conditions.

7.2.2 Topography

Slope of the basin is in the north-west direction, while most of the industries are located in the south-eastern quarter of the basin. Consequently, effluents flow all the way across the basin. This increases the residence time for the toxicants. Increase in residence time of effluents leads to spread of pollution in the basin, covering a larger area.

The construction of industries and other ancillary structures has resulted in change in the topography of the area mainly in the south-eastern quadrant of Nakkavagu basin where majority of the industries are located.

7.2.3 Soils

a) Black cotton soils are predominantly rich in clay content (up to 50 percent), and are less permeable. They hinder percolation of effluents entering into groundwater.

b) Clay of brick making grade that is available at Patancheru is also a hindrance for the percolation of pollutants. The clay also adsorbs some of the hazardous elements.

c) Industrial pollution had degraded the soil quality, as can be seen in Figure 7.1.

d) The salts dissolved and deposited in the valleys resulted in salt incrustations in the soils adjacent to Nakkavagu. Saline soils lead to relatively poor germination and leads to physiological drought, thereby effecting the growth of the plants.

e) The polluted and non-productive fields are being used for the mining of sand (recent alluvium along the banks of Nakkavagu), and the clay of brick making grade for the construction industry had resulted in loss of top fertile soil and presently these fields are turned into badlands.

f) The mining of sand along Nakkavagu also results in easy movement of pollutants further into new areas along Nakkavagu.

7.2.4 Climate and Meteorology

Temperature conditions and evaporation rates are relatively high in tropical climatic conditions. Such a condition results in concentration of the pollutants in the effluents. Concentrated effluents are more toxic than diluted effluents. Similarly as this area receives just about 80cms of annual rainfall the dilution factor is very less. The problem of formation of salt incrustations increases in areas with high temperature and less rainfall. And also the residence time of pollutants would have been less in case of areas with high rainfall, as the pollutants would be flushed out with the rainwater.

Wind speed and direction is important in understanding the impacts of air pollution. The Pre-monsoon south-eastern winds in the evenings have an impact on the residents of Hyderabad. The winter winds, which move in the eastern and south-eastern direction mostly, are the most hazardous to the residents of Hyderabad. In October (23rd and 24th) and November (15th), 1998, the gas such as methyl mercaptan (it is a heavy gas and it is easily detectable even in miniscule amounts) was released by one of the three industries in Nakkavagu basin, reached as far as Jubilee hills and Panjagutta in Hyderabad. This gas which is easily detectable was the cause of annoyance and protest by the public (Venkateshwarulu, 1998). The hazardous gases released by the industries and which cannot be detected by human beings would have an impact on the health of population residing in north-western part of Hyderabad. The heavy gases would accumulate in the narrow and valley like parts of the city, especially during the winters, as the air would be cool and heavy. This would be part of the usual smog and mist observed during the winters. As the annual wind patterns are rare in the southern and south-western directions the rural people are relatively safer as compared to the larger population residing in Hyderabad to the east and south-east.

Due to heavy air pollution, acid rains are possible. However, air pollution from NOx, and SO2 is not a major threat presently to the resident population in the area. But there is another threat from the Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) like Benzene, Toluene etc., as these chemicals are being used in large quantities in the industries. Absence of forests and other vegetation coverage, the problem of particulate matter is high especially in Patancheru.

7.3 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT

7.3.1 Flora

The region has a rich bio-diversity of plant species, meeting the needs of the people in different ways for the past several centuries. People are well aware of the use of this invaluable resource. However, pollution in the region had drastically reduced the incidence of natural species. Due to the presence of polluted waters, soil and air, under the new environmental conditions, many plant species are reduced to few numbers and are limited to few pockets. The resistant species such as prosopis juliflora is seen in more numbers in all the highly polluted parts of the basin, in the industrial areas, and all along the polluted Isukavagu, Pamulavagu and Nakkavagu. Industrial pollution also affected the agriculture sector in parts of Nakkavagu basin. This relationship is shown in Figure 7.2.

7.3.2 Fauna

There is very little wild fauna in the region, as the percentage of forest cover is very less, and presently appears in pockets only. The major threat is to existing fauna, mainly domestic animals, and birds. The impact of pollution on domestic animals such as disease and death lead to direct economic losses to the farmers. Appearance of birds, resident and migratory, is decreasing drastically. In fact, even the sparrows are seen in less numbers in the area. The perennial water tanks located to the south and south-eastern part of the basin, where the majority of Industries are located. The industrial effluents entering into such tanks made the water toxic, has impact on the aquatic life, which in turn affects the aquatic birds.

Manjira wild life sanctuary is located close to this region; majority of the industries in Nakkavagu basin are well within 25 to 30 kms of this sanctuary. As per the environmental guidelines for industries (Singh, 1994), all the polluting industries located well within 25 kms from the ecologically sensitive areas which includes Sanctuaries should be shifted to safer distance. Birds not constrained by geographical barriers, birds visiting this sanctuary would also visit Nakkavagu basin wherein they are likely to be exposed to various kinds of pollutants.

7.3.3 Flora and Fauna of Surface waters

The surface waters include the tanks and streams of Nakkavagu basin. The impacts are mainly due to the pollutants released by industries into the surface water bodies. Isukavagu, Nakkavagu and Manjira River (after the confluence of Nakkavagu) do not support any significant life. Similarly Khazipally cheru, Gandigudem cheru, Krishnareddipet cheru, Mukta kunta, Bollaram cheru, Khazipalli village cheru, Saka cheru, Isnapur cheru and Chitkul cheru are the most polluted and support very little aquatic life. Whereas Nagula cheru, Aminpur cheru, Mutangi cheru and Lakdaram cheru, and Manjira River before confluence with Nakkavagu are less polluted, hence they support good number of aquatic species (Table 3.3).

7.4 Socio-Economic and Cultural Environment

For the socio-economic and cultural environment impact assessments Patancheru, R.C.Puram, Jinnaram and Sangareddy Mandals are considered in which Nakkavagu basin exists.

7.4.1 Population

Because of the proximity to Hyderabad, industrial development and the passing of N.H-9 are the factors responsible for the development of R.C.Puram and Patancheru. One of the reasons for less development of Patancheru in comparison to R.C.Puram is because of water pollution and obnoxious smell. Female ratio per 1000 males is less for Patancheru and other three Mandals as single bachelors immigrated from elsewhere, for working in the industries at the cost of local population.

The population structure of most polluted villages, which are located close to the industrial areas and the polluted streams such as Ismailkhanpet, Arutla, Chidruppa, Bythole, Eardanoor, Indrakaran, Lakdaram, Chinnakanjerla, Peddakanjerla, Sultanpur, Krishnareddipet, Indresham, Inole, Bachuguda, Chitkul, Isnapur, Kardanoor, Muttangi, Pocharam, Khazipalli and Bollaram. The percentage of rural population is around 80% in a number of villages, which means not many people are taken in jobs in spite of industrialisation. Only around 20% of the population is literate that reduces the job opportunities. Around 20% of the population being below 6 years of age are the sensitive to pollution.

7.4.2 Education

As the literates and the educated local population is low in comparison to the large number of educated people in a city like Hyderabad which is located in the suburbs, local people are getting less employment opportunities.

7.4.3 Health

Many of the polluted villages in Nakkavagu basin along polluted streams have no safe drinking water supply. In 1997 High Court passed an interim order in the Public Interest Litigation (Justice Sudershan Reddy (W.P.No. 26336) dated 5.7.97), asking the government to provide and continue water supply to the pollution affected villages in and around Patancheru and Bollaram industrial areas. The villages include Kalabgur, Kandi, Rudraram, Isnapur, Chitkul, Muttangi, Pocharam, Patancheru and Ramachandrapuram. The domestic animals such as cattle and sheep, upon drinking the polluted waters either got effected and some of them died in many instances. Moreover the crops grown in such a polluted environment could be phyto-toxic. Therefore the polluted water, air and food would have an adverse impact on the lives of people and other life in Nakkavagu basin. The present Public Health Centers (PHCs) and veterinary services provided by Government are inadequate.

7.4.4 Land – use

Increase in the fallow lands and less percentage of net sown area in Patancheru, Sangareddy, Jinnaram and R.C.Puram Mandals can be related to the developmental activities and the pollution of environment by industries.

7.4.5 Agriculture

Many farmers have shifted to dryland farming where the surface and groundwater sources are polluted. Some of the farmers are leaving their fields fallow even up to 20% as in case of Pocharam and Bachuguda villages.

The polluted tanks and the wells to the south-eastern and southern part of the basin and the wells along Nakkavagu rendered water unfit for irrigation, either the crop yields would be very low or occassionally the whole crop would wither and die. The pollution of water and soil has an adverse impact on the majority of local population still dependent on agriculture especially would affect the majority of marginal farmers.

7.4.6 Employment

Industrialisation did not help the local people in getting alternative employment opportunities because of the more competitive people in Hyderabad. Therefore there is large-scale migration of `skilled’ people into this region. As the residential areas are located towards Hyderabad away from the industrial area because of polluted environment in Patancheru area and other disadvantages of services. As a result the indirect employment opportunities are less therefore the multiplier economic benefits are also less (Figure 7.3).

7.4.7 Cultural Properties

The relicts of cultural and other heritage sites existing in and around Patancheru area were neglected due to industrialisation. Innumerable ancient sculptures, engravings etc., found in the region have been abandoned and are never taken care of nor reported to the Archaeology department.

7.5 WATER ENVIRONMENT

7.5.1 Nakkavagu Basin

7.5.1.1 Drainage System

The drainage system of Nakkavagu was altered through many centuries by the interference of human activities, like the construction of tanks and channels etc., and also with the recent developmental activities especially in the south-eastern quadrant of the basin. The drainage system is altered and obstructed, therefore these kinds of activities will act against the free flow of pollutants, and hence the residence time of pollutants in the basin increases.

7.5.1.2 Tanks

The presence of water storage tanks in the south and south-eastern part of the basin are acting as solar evaporation ponds for the pollutants entering them for example Isnapur tank, Peddacheruvu, Saka cheruvu, Krishnareddipet tank etc. As these tanks are located on non-permeable rocky area. The excellent water harvesting and storage facilities constructed in Nakkavagu basin are acting like traps against the free flow of pollutants thereby increasing the residence time of the pollutants in the basin.

7.5.2 Industrial Pollution in Nakkavagu Basin

Majority of the industries located in Nakkavagu basin are the bulk-drug or pharmaceutical industries. Some of the chemical compounds which are used as raw material in the production of drugs are Acetone, Acetyl chloride, Ammonia, Aniline, Benzene, Bromine, Chlorine, Chlorosulphonic acid, Dimethylcaromyl, Dioxane, Ethylene dichloride, Formaldehyde, Hexane, Hydrochloric acid, Maleic anhydride, Methylene chloride, Nitrobenzene, Nitrogen dioxide, Nitrogen oxides, Phenol, Phenyl glycidal ether, Sodium cyanide, Sulphuric acid, Thionyl chloride, Toluene, Triethylamine etc. Tonnes of such chemicals are used in the production are hazardous. In a case study of 10 such industries on an average about 4.3 times of hazardous raw material is utilised for every unit of the product produced (Table 5.1). These industries are using organic and inorganic hazardous chemicals which when released in the process are hazardous to the life in Nakkavagu basin.

7.5.2.1 Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs)

The two CETPs, which were established in Patancheru and Bollaram, to treat the effluents of member industries, are the major contributors of water pollution in Nakkavagu basin. The effluents released by CETP-Patancheru are toxic and hazardous, as the effluents are only partially treated. The sludge that is derived as waste product in the treatment process of both the CETPs has no place for secure disposal, which is again a potential source for water contamination. Therefore CETPs which are industries by themselves are the major contributors of water pollution in Nakkavagu basin.

7.5.3 Surface water

The ranges of pollutants found in the water environment of Nakkavagu basin are shown in Table 7.1.

7.5.3.1 Flowing waters

In general the quality of effluents in Nakkavagu are deteriorating as observed over a period of time (Table 5.8).

The Nakkavagu and Pamulavagu waters are alkaline. TDS, TH, TSS, COD, BOD, SO4, Pb, Hg, As and Se are found to be high in the samples collected from, Nakkavagu, Pamulavagu and CETP. CETP is releasing the effluents with very high concentration of all the above parameters and including Cd, Zn, Cu, B, Mn, Cr and Fe. These waters are not fit for releasing into the inland surface waters (Table 7.1).

TDS, COD, and BOD of the effluents of Nakkavagu are only partially reduced over a distance of about 22kms. As the chances of dilution in Nakkavagu is less as the rainfall in this region is about 80cms only. Therefore Nakkavagu mainly acts as an influent stream, which contaminates the groundwater on either side of the stream.

In rainy season, the level of pollution in Nakkavagu is supposed to be low, considering the factors of dilution. However, contrary to this belief, the early or first monsoon showers also add to pollution of Nakkavagu. Leachets from solid waste dumps enter into Nakkavagu stream. Salts from salt incrustations in the soil and or other precipitates would directly or indirectly reach Nakkavagu. Some of the pollutants may enter Nakkavagu by accident or illegal release of effluents from `solar evaporation ponds’. They usually overflow, since they remain uncovered and get filled by rainwater, and also there will be little evaporation because of cloud cover during monsoons. In spite of dilution it was observed during the peak of rainy season (1997) a particular paddy field irrigated from Nakkavagu waters at Ismailkhanpet Bridge turned brown and withered. However after heavy rains in the later part of rainy season the levels of pollution in Nakkavagu are less, because of dilution. Therefore nowhere and at no time of the year Nakkavagu is fit for irrigation right from Kardanoor village to the confluence point at Gaudcherla (about 25 kms stretch).

7.5.3.2 Tanks

Tanks were built for conserving water and recharging groundwater. But now they have become a hindrance to free flow of pollutants in the basin. As a result the residence time of the pollutants increased, causing damage to the environment and ecology in Nakkavagu basin. Industrial effluents polluted many tanks located in different villages on Pamulavagu tributaries; they are Khazipally cheru, Gandigudem cheru, Krishnareddipet cheru, Mukta kunta, Bollaram cheru and Khazipalli village cheru. Some tanks located on the tributaries of Nakkavagu are also polluted such as Saka cheruvu, Isnapur and Peddacheruvu. The tanks in isolation and away from industrial areas are less polluted and some are best preserved, they are Nagula cheru, Aminpur cheru, Mutangi cheru and Lakdaram cheru. Almost all the major tanks of Nakkavagu basin are located to the south-eastern quadrant of the basin, as the industries are also located in the same region, therefore majority of the tanks are polluted by the industrial effluents released into them. These polluted tanks have become secondary sources of pollution of streams, tanks and the groundwater.

7.5.4 Groundwater

Groundwater is polluted on either side of the Nakkavagu and the waters are not useful for drinking. TDS, COD, BOD, Cl, and Hg are found to be high in the groundwater samples collected at Pocharam, Ganapathiguda and Bachuguda villages. Openwells, which are close to Nakkavagu, are highly contaminated in comparison to the borewells.

The pollutants also contaminated the drinking water sources of the following villages: Baithole, Baithole Tanda, Lakdaram, Sultanpur, Inole, Chitkul, Arutla, Chidruppa, Ismailkhanpet, Peddakanjerla, Kardanoor, Eardanoor and Eardanoor Tanda. Some of the pollutants such as F, Mn could have been partially entered into borewells through deep fractures and also the pollutants such as NO2 and NO3 could have been the result of use of nitrogen fertilisers by farmers. Overall the groundwater is contaminated, up to a distance of 500 to 1000 meters on either side of Nakkavagu, from Kardanoor to Ismailkhanpet.

7.6 ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON NAKKAVAGU BASIN WITH AND WITHOUT INDUSTRIES

This is an exercise to quantify the impacts based on the checklist developed by the Environmental Evaluation System (EES) at the Batelle Columbus Laboratories, USA (Dee et al, 1973) is used with some modifications, for final evaluation of impacts with and without industries. In this assessment 36 parameters are selected (Figure 1.5). Parameter Importance Weights (PIW) represent the value of importance of each environmental parameter. The weights have been given to the 36 environmental parameters based on the degree of impact caused by the establishment of industries and associated developmental activities over the last 40 years (industrialisation started in Nakkavagu basin about 40 years back). Similarly the weights were given assessing the degree of alteration of environmental parameters that would have happened over the last 40 years, even without industries in Nakkavagu basin.

Impact assessment is a comparative exercise. In the absence of industries too there ought to be changes in the environment, mainly because of four factors:

a) The growing population in Nakkavagu basin and associated developmental activities like housing, road networks and other services.

b) The modernisation of agriculture (increasing use of chemical pesticides and fertilisers)

c) Influence of growing Hyderabad City and the expansion of the city along NH-9 axis

d) Impact of NH-9, pollution by vehicles, increase in number of vehicles etc.

The resultant weights were given to all parameters (Tables 7.2 (a), (b), (c), (d) and (e)). The difference and the total weights are also presented in the tables. The quantification of the impacts is through personal judgement after going through all methods of assessment of impacts.

The reasons for impacts without industries are comprehensively discussed below. Patancheru was traditionally an intensive agricultural zone. In comparison, there is enormous water potential in the area. Further, being nearer to Hyderabad, market plays a vital role in defining the orientation of agricultural practices. Thus, there should be a decreasing preference among the farmers to leave the lands fallow. There would have been slight change in cropping pattern from traditional crops like paddy to commercial crops. In such a situation, there would have been a corresponding increase in the consumption of pesticides and fertilisers to maximise yields. The residual chemicals lead to agricultural pollution from inorganic and organic chemicals. Natural growth of population in the region will increase pressure on the natural resources like, construction material for housing, etc. Energy consumption also increases. People dependent on firewood would deplete the existing flora in the common lands. Water, health and sanitation are also of prime concern. In the absence of industries, the community structure and participation in social and cultural activities would be strong. As it is close to Hyderabad City, some people would prefer to shift to the city for residential purpose. Vehicular traffic on the highway passing through Patancheru increase the incidence of air and noise pollution leading to adverse environmental impacts. NH-9 is one of the busiest highways.

The impact assessment studies of this area indicate that there is a considerable adverse impact on the environment. There is a two-fold increase when compared to the ratios to ‘No industries’. When viewed for ‘No industries’ it would have retained 80% of the environment unaffected. Whereas with industries, it is observed that the loss to the environment is to the extent of 60%. Overall the differences show that there is a limited advantage for human interest such as generation of jobs but the value of losses to the environment, ecology and aesthetics cannot be accounted due to the industries. The results should be viewed seriously otherwise the basin would further becomes unsuitable for any kind of activities.

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The causes and impacts of watDISCUSSIONS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The causes and impacts of water pollution are direct and indirect and have many dimensions. In this chapter, it has been tried to discuss all such relationships. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) which are the tools in decision making for sustainable development are also discussed. Many scientists in the recent past have published good literature on environmental impacts (Gevirtz (1977), Doremus (1978), Petak (1980), Prahalad (1987), Smith (1993), Wood (1995), Wiesner (1995) and Larry (1996)).

6.2 ECOSPHERE

The ecosphere is part of geoecosphere or earth. Geoecosphere is defined as the interacting terrestrial life and life supporting systems viz. toposphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, pedosphere and biosphere. The interaction of ecosphere with life and other spheres is shown in Figure 6.1. The sustainability of life on geoecosphere depends on the quality of all the above spheres. The rate of change of each geoecospheric component depends on all other spheres too (Richard, 1995). Human beings, being an inherent component of biosphere contribute to the overall sustainability or otherwise of the entire geoecosphere in our own unique way. Industrial outfits; the manifestation of human activity, are clustered to certain zones, very often in and around urban areas. The physical, chemical and biological nature of ecosphere itself is altered as a result of the activities like industrialisation, infrastructure development, etc. Industrialisation often involves generation of different byproducts, which at times are toxic in nature. The hydrosphere (water) and atmosphere (air) act as two important and fast couriers for the dispersal of different waste products generated in the above processes. The hazardous solid waste, which appears immobile, becomes a source for water pollution through leachets. Thus, preservation, protection and conservation of hydrosphere and atmosphere components attain vital significance.

6.3 HYDROSPHERE

As discussed above, the preservation of hydrosphere is vital and this is even substantiated in the study area too. The hydrosphere of Nakkavagu basin suffers mainly from deterioration of quality of water. The high degree of the presence of the pollutants in the water environment of Nakkavagu basin during the last two decades had deteriorated the environment of Nakkavagu basin.

6.4 ROLE OF hUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ENVIRONMENT

The increase in intensity of human activities with the progress of mankind is responsible for the environmental problems on earth. Man is the dominant species on earth in sheer numbers and capacity to change the natural environment can be considered a geological agent of action. The impact of man is largely seen on land and to a lesser extent on sea. On land or at sea the activity is limited to the surface environment only.

In biosphere there is no other species as dominant as man. World Population is increasing exponentially; therefore, earth is overburdened by the present about six billion population. The carrying capacity of earth is reaching a stage of non-sustenance. The progress of human beings at present is at the cost of snatching the living rights of about 30 million species, sharing the living space on this unique planet-earth. Human activity within last three centuries wiped out many species from this earth. Many species are getting extinct even before their discovery.

The development and progress of human beings can be attributed to the geological resources bestowed to human beings by earth. The progress and prosperity of human beings is accelerated mainly by the use of water and minerals (including soil). The irrigation facilities and fertile soil prospered agricultural activity, a very old sector in existence for the past more than 5000 years. Although development of settled agriculture is the precursor for human development, it accelerated only with the usage of implements and domestication of animals. Although the devastation of environment and ecology started since the time man started agriculture, but it accelerated only since industrial revolution.

Extensive discovery and usage of minerals led to industrial development, which accelerated only since 18th century, started in Europe. The raw material for industries involves mining – stripping the earth, these minerals excavated are then concentrated and complex chemicals are formed out of them. In the process of production, only minor part of the raw material turns into the finished product, rest of the chemicals is released as waste into the environment. The hazardous chemicals let into environment are the cause of concern.

6.5 WATER CONTAMINATION

Inorganic, organic and synthetic chemical wastes released by industries in Patancheru are the main causes of water pollution. Synthetic chemicals are the substances never produced in nature, many of these chemicals are so stable that they cannot be broken down by the existing Common Effluent Treatment (CET) process.

Ponds, tanks, lakes, streams and rivers are the natural chemical laboratories for all kinds of chemical reactions. The presence of sunlight, wind, convection currents in water, and the potential energy of the stream mixes and stirs water. Creation of harmful chemicals from harmless chemicals in natural lab is taking place on a wider scale. In routine test’s thousands of complex organic and inorganic chemicals, those resulting from reactions in the natures lab, are not analysed. The impact of all those chemicals on biota dependent on those waters are never known. In situations where degree of toxicity of chemicals is beyond the detection capability of human senses, gravity of the problem is occasionally revealed by the death of domestic animals, fish, etc., as it is happening in Nakkavagu basin. In the past two decades hundreds of cattle, sheep and other domestic animals died after consuming polluted waters, such incidents are reported in the press from time to time.

6.6 INDUSTRIES AND POLLUTION

Environment is being polluted by the release of many hazardous substances by the industries into water, air and soil (Figure 6.2). Many of the substances that are found in polluted environment, were not involved during the evolution of life, therefore they are toxic. Among the 108 elements in the periodic table, 80 are metals and only 17 of these are toxic viz. Be, Se, Os, Cd, Pb, Hg, As, Tl, Sb, V, Cr, Te, Ni, Co, Zn, U and Mn. Among the above following metals are analysed Se, As, Cd, Pb, Hg, Cr and Zn of which Hg, As, Se and Pb are found to be polluting the water environment of Nakkavagu basin (Ref: Chapter – V).

Man knows more than seven million chemicals and some 80,000 are in common use. The carbon-based chemicals account over 90 percent of world production of organic chemicals and a large proportion of fertilisers. About 800 to 1000 new chemical compounds are introduced each year (Struan, 1990). The presence of large number of pharmaceutical and chemical industries in and around Patancheru is responsible for releasing organic chemicals into the environment.

Water is an important medium for spreading toxic substances in the environment. Water also helps in chemical reactions among dissolved substances; therefore water is a kind of chemical reactor in nature’s lab, which can alter chemical composition and thereby the toxicity of many substances. Water molecules cause ionisation. Ions are reactive, and form different substances, which could be more or less, toxic, dissolvable, volatile and able to bioconcentrate. The less oxygen combined with the metal and the more acid in the water, the more dissolvable the metal. Dissolved metals are easily taken up by plants and ingested by animals.

The industrial pollution can be broadly classified into inorganic and organic pollution. Inorganics from industrial sources can be broadly divided into metals, salts, and acids and bases. The metals are usually found in low concentrations near localised sources of pollution, but this is balanced by their high human toxicity. Because they are adsorbed onto minerals their mobility is restricted. Trace metals are the metals present in the environment or in the human body in very low concentrations, such as copper, iron, and zinc. Heavy metals are those trace metals whose densities are at least five times greater than water, such as cadmium, lead and mercury. Toxic metals are all those metals whose concentrations in the environment are now considered to be harmful at least to some people in some places. Once mobile, metals find their way by many ways into the biotic systems through, water, food and air. Chronic poisoning by long term exposure to low levels of metals is of more concern then acute effects. Organo-metallic compounds are more poisonous than the simple inorganic compounds as they are highly soluble for example alkyl-mercuric compounds.

Industrial processing often involves derivation of salts as various by-products. Anions from salts are very mobile and move with the groundwater, cations are generally less mobile and undergo ion exchange or adsorption. Some salts contribute to pollution primarily by their high concentration levels; other salts like arsenic contribute to pollution because of their toxicity. Acids and bases in the groundwater are neutralised by aquifer rocks resulting in a salinity increase. Salt incrustations are commonly found along the banks of Nakkavagu and Pamulavagu and also in the fields using polluted waters for irrigation.

6.7 Industries and Micro-climate

The air pollution has far reaching impact on environment; the pollutants transported by air as suspended particulate matter or aerosols or in the form of various gases ultimately return back to earth elsewhere, through precipitation or dry deposition. There is every chance that such pollutants find their way into the water environment directly or indirectly. Smog formation and acid rains, which are the two mechanisms of air pollution, have the tendency to alter the microclimate of the region. Heat island effect is one of the direct / indirect symptoms of air pollution.

6.7.1 Smog

In the study area, the diurnal temperature variations are usually high. Occasionally on clear and calm winter night’s, temperature inversions are witnessed that leads to condensation just above the ground surface called fog. Particles of smoke and poisonous gases such as sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, etc., released from the industries couple with fog to form smog. The smog is a health hazard. The smog is more common in Patancheru industrial area especially in the low-lying areas during winters.

6.7.2 Acid rains

Acid rains are indirect sources of water pollution through air. The normal rain is slightly acidic (about pH 5), due to dissolved carbondioxide and other naturally occurring acids in the atmosphere. Rain with pH less than normal values in a region are called acid rain. The air pollutants like sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide etc., are released into the environment in an industrial area. Under dry conditions in atmosphere the gases react chemically with sunlight results in photochemical smog, it is a foul smelling yellowish haze rich in ozone, running eyes and noses, coughing are the symptoms, sometimes can lead to death. The photochemical smog cannot be ignored. Under wet conditions in atmosphere, like the presence of clouds, precipitation leads to acid rains. Acidity of rainwater, flowing into streams and lakes is reduced by rocks containing calcium which neutralises the acid. The granite rocks in Nakkavagu basin, which contain little calcium, do not neutralise acid rain, so the acids enter rivers and destroy the ecosystem. pH less then 5.5 leads to reduction in fish numbers, and fish death occurs below pH 5. Acid rainwater releases aluminium from rocks, which is poisonous to fish and plants. Acid rain kills forests over large areas called ‘forest dieback’. The archaeological monuments like temples, mosques and graveyards plastered by mortar are etched or eaten away. The archaeological sites in and around Patancheru several hundred years old are under threat. Acid rains in and around industrial areas have the tendency to pollute surface water and groundwater resources.

6.7.3 Heat island

Industries contribute to the rise in atmospheric temperature called ‘Heat island’; this phenomenon is experimentally proved for many large cities. Industrial areas such as those concentrated in Nakkavagu basin too contribute largely for raise in temperatures and for changes in the local climatic conditions.

The heat in the industrial areas released by the machinery, exothermic chemical reactions, and vehicles, burning of fossil fuel, wood and from other heat energy sources. The continuous release of green house gases such as carbondioxide, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s), etc., creates a bubble like shield of several square kilometers around an industrial area and the surrounding rural areas. There is usually high dust content in the air released by the various processes in an industrial area. The greenhouse gases and the dust allow the solar radiation but they prevent the out going long radiation, therefore heat is trapped. Consequently, the microclimate in and around an industrial area would be warmer then the surrounding open countryside. The dust particles and the gases like sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, chlorine, fluorine, bromine, carbon monoxide, etc., are hygroscopic in nature encourage condensation, that leads to cloud cover, the clouds again act as heat blanket.

6.8 TOXICITY

The quantum of pollutant to which each individual is exposed is called the dose, and the amount of health damage is called the response. Dose is usually expressed in one of the three ways, a) The amount of substance actually in the body. b) The amount of the material entering the body (usually in food, drinking water, or the air). c) The concentration in the environment (Harte et al. 1991). Toxicity of pollutants is shown in hypothetical dose-response curve (Figure 6.3)

The assimilation of xenobiotic chemicals within organism at sub-lethal or lethal levels may induce a sequence of biological effects. These range from molecular interference with biochemical mechanisms and interactions with cellular organelles (e.g. DNA and RNA molecules), through to pathological changes at the cellular, tissue, and organ levels. Finally, these result in an integrated functional or behavioural response, experienced at the whole organism level, which may be reversible or irreversible (Des and Gregory, 1984).

Bio-magnification is an indirect route of pollutants reaching species at higher trophic levels, through an endless cyclic transfer of food material from life to life. Often the victims are identified lately and by the time of discovery a large community is under impact of pollution. This kind of pollution requires a thorough study of all the paths of food chains. Ultimately the estimation of impact of pollution on human beings is possible through epidemiological studies. It is the search for statistical associations between the occurrence of disease in a population and the factors suspected of causing the disease.

6.8.1 Toxics Found in Nakkavagu Basin

The following are the toxicants, which are being used by the industries in the production. Many of these toxicants would be consumed in part only for end product, rest of the chemicals are released as wastes, would pollute the water environment of Nakkavagu basin. The health and environmental impacts discussed are from Harte et al., 1991.

Acetone:

Other names: Dimethyl ketone; 2-propanone; pyroacetic ether; ketone propane.

Health Effects:

Inhalation of very high concentrations can depress the central nervous system, causing dizziness, weakness, and loss of consciousness. The presence of large amounts of acetone in the body can increase the liver toxicity of carbon tetrachloride. Ingestion of acetone causes central nervous system depression, high blood sugar levels, and high levels of acetone in the blood.

Ammonia:

Other names: Ammonia water; ammonium hydroxide.

Health effects:

The symptoms of ammonia exposure are a burning sensation (in the eyes, nose and throat), pain in the lungs, headache, nausea, tearing, coughing and an increased breathing rate. Concentrations are shown in table below.

Health effect

Concentration

Environmental effects:

Ammonia (NH3) adds nitrogen to the environment. In areas that cannot handle the added nitrogen, disruptions to the ecosystem will result. These include toxic effects on plants, fish, and animals and changes in the balance of species. Although ammonia is a base, it actually acidifies soil by its rapid conversion to nitrate (NO3), releasing hydrogen ions just like other acids.

Arsenic:

Physical and chemical properties: Arsenic and selenium are antagonistic toxins: exposure to one reduces the adverse effects of the other.

Health effects:

Lung cancer from inhaling arsenic and skin cancer from swallowing it are the two most dangerous effects of arsenic exposure for the general population. Inorganic is considered as the highest category of cancer-causing chemicals. Acute arsenic poisoning is characterised by severe gastrointestinal damage resulting in vomiting and diarrhea and general vascular collapse leading to shock, coma, and even death.

Environmental Effects:

Arsenic is toxic to plants in high concentrations. Eventually the trees may become totally unproductive.

Benzene:

Other Names: Benzol; carbon oil; coal tar naphtha; cyclohexatriene; phenyl hydride; pyrobenzole

Health effects: Acute exposure following ingestion or excessive inhalation depresses the central nervous system resulting in headache, dizziness, nausea, convulsions, coma, and possibly death. It is considered as carcinogen. Leukemia –induced death rate of 95 per 1000 workers based on an assumed lifetime occupational exposure.

Environmental effects: Benzene is a long term contaminant of groundwater because it cannot readily evaporate underground, and since little microbial activity occurs in underground water, it is not degraded.

Cadmium:

Health Effects:

Inhaled cadmium is associated with lung cancer in people. Chronic exposure to low levels of cadmium may also result in progressive lung diseases such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Chronic exposure to cadmium is also associated with a wide range of other diseases, including heart disease, anemia, skeletal weakening, depressed immune system response, and kidney and live disease.

Environmental Effects:

Cadmium is strongly accumulated by organisms at all levels. Cadmium has the potential to concentrate in the food chain.

Copper:

Health Effects:

Copper deficiency leads to anemia, growth retardation, defective keratigization, hypothermia, mental deterioration etc. Excess copper leads to diseases like hepatitis, cirrhosis tremor, kayser fleisher rings and renal dysfunction.

Chromium:

Health Effects:

Chromium metal appears to be biologically inert and no harmful effects have been reported. Chromium compounds are responsible for the majority of all adverse effects of chromium. Chromium can produce liver and kidney damage, internal haemorrhage, dermatitis, respiratory damage, and lung cancer. Longer-term exposures to the respiratory tract and skin can produce perforated and ulcerated nasal septa, inflammation of the nasal passages, frequent nose bleeds, and skin ulcers.

Dioxane:

Other Names: 1,4-Dioxane; p-dioxan; di(ethylene oxide); diethylene dioxide; diethylene ether; diethylene oxide.

Dioxane is a synthetic organic compound.

Health effects:

Chronic exposure to dioxane is also hazardous. Prolonged skin exposure can cause a rash or burn. Repeated exposure to levels that do not cause symptoms can lead to slowed central nervous system function and to liver and kidney damage. These symptoms may be delayed because the chemical has a tendency to accumulate in body tissue. When dioxane is present in chlorinated water, a highly toxic compound is formed. Its toxicity is 1000 times.

Environmental effects:

Dioxane could pose a toxic threat to the groundwater supplies if concentrations are high enough, because of slow microbial degradation and it cannot evaporate easily from groundwater.

Ethylene Dichloride (EDC):

Health effects:

Central nervous system and gastrointestinal problems such as dizziness, nausea, headache, vomiting, diarrhea, dilated pupils, weak pulse, cyanosis, and unconsciousness. Kidney and liver damage. In mammals metabolism of EDC produces metabolites (including chloroacetaldehyde, chloroacetic acid, and chloroethanol) that appear to be several times more toxic than the parent compound. The metabolic products bind strongly to DNA than does EDC; such binding reactions are involved in the development of mutations, birth defects, and cancers.

Environmental effects:

Groundwater contaminant as evaporation rates from underground water is low.

Fluoride:

Health Effects:

The intake of small, recommended amounts of fluoride provides partial protection against tooth decay (dental caries). There is also evidence that small doses of fluoride can help stimulate bone growth in patients with osteoporosis. Over consumption leads to gastrointestinal illness, nausea, and vomiting. Long-term exposure to high levels of fluoride in drinking water can lead to a serious condition called severe skeletal fluorosis, or crippling fluorosis. In this disease, fluoride causes irregular bone deposits to form, which can lead to severe pain in joints and eventual crippling. Mottling of the teeth (dental fluorosis) is the most widespread effect of fluoride. As tooth enamel forms in childhood.

Formaldehyde:

Other Names: Formalin; Methyl aldehyde.

Highly water soluble, colourless gas with pungent odour and irritant properties.

Health effects: Formaldehyde is a possible carcinogen. Health effects at various concentrations are given in table below.

Effect

Concentration (in ppm)

Iron:

Health Effects:

Iron deficiency leads to anemia but exposure to excess iron leads to hepatitic failure, diabetes and testicular atrophy etc.

Lead:

Health Effects:

Lead affects the human nervous system, the production of blood cells, kidneys, reproductive system, and behaviour. The risks of lead poisoning are greatest in children and in pregnant women. Health effects at various blood lead levels are given in table below.
Health Effect

Blood Lead Concentration (ppb/100ml)

Manganese:

Health Effects:

Deficiency leads to bleeding disorder whereas excess leads to diseases such as encephalitis, psychosis, parkinson syndrome and pneumoconiosis.

Mercury:
Other Name: Quick silver

Health Effects:

In addition to pure mercury compounds of mercury can also be harmful. Methyl mercury accumulated in fish by biomagnification, is rapidly absorbed by people who eat such fish and can readily pass through the placenta of pregnant women, exposing developing fetuses, and through the blood-brain barrier into the brain. High exposure leads to damages to nervous system, Memory losses, tremors, emotional instability (anxiety and irritability), insomnia, and loss of appetite characterise milder exposures. Introversion appears to be the most prominent personality trait in affected people. At moderate exposures, more significant mental disorders and motor disturbances as well as kidney damage, are seen.

Environmental effects:

-Inorganic mercury discharges by industry are converted by bacteria water and in sediments to organic methylmercury. The organic form, methylmercury accumulates in aquatic food chain through the process of biomagnification.

-Acid rain and the increasing acidification of surface waters, more acidic conditions shift the organic mercury to forms that are more readily absorbed by fish (dimethyl to monomethylmercury), thus raising the levels in fish to which humans are ultimately exposed.

-Freshwater species are more vulnerable than marine species because selenium in seawater provides partial protection against mercury’s effects.

Methylene Chloride:

Other Names: Dichloromethene; methane dichloride; methylene dichloride

Health effects:

Methyl chloride is a common pollutant of air and groundwater. The major exposure is through inhalation. Methyl chloride readily absorbed once inside the lungs. Absorbed methylene chloride is distributed throughout the body and easily crosses the blood-brain barrier and the placenta. It can also be found in the breast milk of exposed women. Once inside the body, methylene chloride is rapidly converted to carbon monoxide, although it can also be stored in body fat. People exposed to high levels of methylene chloride show decreased manual performance and attention lapses. Heart arrhythmias and death have been ascribed to excessively high levels of the solvent in air. Methylene chloride may cause cancer.

Environmental Effects:

Methylene chloride stays in the groundwater for many years. It does not stick well to soil particles and thus allowing it to move great distances in an aquifer following its release into soil.

Nitrogen dioxide:
Health effects: Some health effects of Nitrogen Dioxide exposure

Effect

Concentration

Environmental Effects:

Nitric acid, the end product of nitrogen dioxide chemical reaction is the end product in air. Acid rain is a threat to plants and freshwater fauna.

Selenium:

Health Effects:

Selenium is the metallic element required in small amount for human health, but which in large quantities can be toxic. Chronic selenium poisoning results in loss of hair and fingernails, with disorders of skin, nervous system, and teeth also reported. Selenium has shown to reduce the toxicity of cadmium, inorganic and dimethyl mercury, thallium, and silver by altering the way these metals react in the body.

Environmental Effects:

Selenium intoxication of farm animals is a well-known condition that accumulates selenium from soils rich in the substance. Chronic ingestion over periods of weeks or months can produce two conditions; the blind staggers-affected animals have impaired vision and alkali disease-signs include liver cirrhosis, hoof malformations, loss of hair and emaciation.

Sulphur Dioxide:

Health effects:

Effect

Concentration (ppm)

Environmental effects:

The most severe damage is caused by the conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid in the atmosphere and its subsequent deposition as acid rain and dry acid particles.

Toluene:

Other Names: Methylbenzene; methylbenzol; phenylmethane; toluol.

Health effects:

Upon inhalation, the vapours aggravate the respiratory tract, depress the central nervous system, and damage the liver and kidneys. Exposure of pregnant women to toluene has been associated with damage to the unborn child.

Environmental Effects:

In the atmosphere toluene contributes to the problem of photochemical smog. Natural plant and animal populations are likely to be at risk from industrial and vehicle-related releases of toluene because natural levels are very low in comparison.

Zinc:

Other Names: Chinese white; flowers of zinc; philosopher’s wool; zinc white and zincite.

Health Effects:

Zinc is required for human health; over-consumption of zinc may impair heart function. It is the most common metal found in Human tissues after iron. Much zinc can result in a condition called zinc toxicosis. Over consumption of zinc leads to stomach distress, cramps, nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea.

Environmental Effects:

Zinc is more a hazard to aquatic organisms than to humans. In areas around smelters and mine runoff, plant growth is depressed and aquatic life and waterfowl are impaired. The effects of zinc are greater in soft water than in hard water.

6.9 People

Nakkavagu basin and surrounding areas are being inhabited for more than 2 million years. These indigenous peoples life is in jeopardy at this juncture of history, the development that claims the progress of life and mankind also acts against it. The sons of the soil are nowhere safe on this earth, more unlikely near the industrial areas. Pollution does not have limits; the cause and effect can reach any distances, by any media and means.

The traditional knowledge has little meaning in the modern industries. Industrialisation is meaningful if it brings real development in the lives of indigenous people. In the name of development of backward Districts as in the case of Medak District, industrialisation is alone not justified. The agricultural activity with options of irrigation sources falls under intensive agriculture zone, that is intensive dairy farming and horticultural activity. Around Hyderabad this is the only region best suitable for intensive agricultural activity, having the finest watershed management.

Patancheru is the sub-urban part of Hyderabad; this region is prosperous in comparison to other interior parts of the District which are really backward, the development of those parts would have been justified, if at all there is any interest to develop the backward Medak District.

The industrial activity is secondary which requires skilled persons and literates, or else it becomes an attractive place for the immigrants and in real terms of development little does the local people will be benefited directly in the form of jobs. With the proximity to Hyderabad in-fact the industrialisation benefited the immigrants and other residents in securing jobs then the indigenous rural population. The Medak District overall got benefited very little. The industries are thriving at the cost of environmental degradation. It is difficult to evaluate and estimate the total losses to property and life, due to pollution. The industrialisation in this part of Medak District benefited the local population very little, but it could have earned riches for the state and the nation in the form of foreign exchange and taxes. The bulk drug industries providing succour to millions of people elsewhere but same industries causing diseases and / or death of the local people. These industrialists have not taken any major social service work for the local people, though it is the social and moral responsibility of industrialists towards them. The industrialisation in this part of Medak District has given more sufferings to the indigenous people then prosperity.

6.10 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES

As far as human beings are considered, developmental activities in a region are weighed by positive and negative Socio-economic parameters. Any developmental activity is meaningless unless majority of local population is benefited out of it. Socio-economic impact is equally important as biophysical impact, but in majority of Environmental Impact Assessment’s less importance is given for Socio-Economic impact. It is often found that industrial pollution and its impact on biophysical environment are overlooked if socio-economic benefits are considerable.

The socio-economic impacts are determined by the type of projects and upon the host environmental characteristics of the region. Socio-economic impacts are of various types. Direct impact is the creation of employment opportunities for local and non-local people. The educational and industrial training institutes at local level provide opportunities for the local population in the skilled sector. The attraction of higher wages leads to some people shifting from less promising traditional occupations. Industrial development also leads to shortage of agricultural labour, as they shift to industries for work, which provides higher wages. The leakage from multiplier benefits would lessen if the percentage of local labour employment were high. The cause-effect diagram for the local socio-economic impacts due to industrial development is shown in Figure 6.4.

6.11 LANDSCAPE

The industrialisation and other developmental activities in Nakkavagu basin brought changes in the landscape by the construction of buildings, laying of roads, release of pollutants, etc. Landscape is an important national resource and an outstanding natural and cultural inheritance, which is widely appreciated for its aesthetic beauty and is important contribution to regional identity and sense of place. Although it is subject to evolution and change, the landscape is recognised as a resource of value to future generations. The following is an initial list of factors that contribute to landscape (Goodey, 1995).

· Physical: geology, landform, climate, and micro-climate, drainage, soil, ecology

· Human: archaeology, landscape history, land use, buildings and settlements

· Aesthetic:

· Visual, e.g. proportion, scale, enclosure, texture, colour, views

· Other senses e.g. sounds, smells, tastes, touch

· Associations:

· Historical, e.g. history of settlements, special events

· Cultural, e.g. well known personalities, literature, painting, music.

The indigenous people associated with the local landscape since childhood will find it difficult to appreciate the changed landscape. For the youngsters who are born after establishment of industries between 10 to 20 years of age, there is no comparative landscape of any kind in their minds, as they have not experienced anything better landscape since their birth. The elderly persons were nostalgic when asked to compare the landscape that they witnessed before and after industrial development.

Nakkavagu was the center of activity for the people of Bachuguda village; people were seen taking bath in the waters, catching fish, washing cloths, etc. It was also the place for domestic animals for drinking water and taking bath in those waters. Such scenes in the landscape of Nakkavagu are missing at present.

The pollution of environment will lead to mental disturbance too. The pitch dark polluted waters with floating oils and grease and the bad odour emanating from the water repels people from approaching them. The change in the composition of plant species brought total change in the landscape of the area. Birds are appearing less in numbers as they have migrated elsewhere, at very few non-polluted lakes large population of diverse birds are seen, example Lakdaram tank. Aesthetics of the region is spoiled completely by the industrial pollution.

6.12 CONCEPTS OF EIA AND SEA:

Environmental impact can be defined as any change in the environment that is caused by an activity or a factor. The change caused by an activity may be physical, chemical, biological, social or economic. (Ramaswamy et al. 1990). History of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is given in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 History of developments in Environment and EIA.

1947 Representatives of 24 nations and many private societies met at Switzerland to propose the creation of an ‘International Union for Conservation of Nature’ (IUCN) which came into being in 1948 under UNESCO.

Mid-1960’s Warning from scientists – climate change – increasing carbondioxide.

Late 1960’s Environmental awakening.

1962 Rachel Carson – ‘Silent Spring’ – About the use of pesticides – a great impact on masses.

1969 National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA), USA, launched EIA and EIS.

Pre 1970 Legislation’s enacted by many countries – air and water pollution, soil erosion.

1970’s A decade of response and action.

1971. World Bank – Environmental Unit – Environmental reconnaissance on hydro projects and guidelines on EIA.

1972 UN conference on Human Environment, Stockholm, Sweden.

1974 UN conference on the Population.

1976 UN conference on Human Settlements.

1987. Asia Development Bank (ADB) – Environmental unit – guidelines on EIA.

1990 Resource Management Act, New Zealand – Principle of sustainability.

1994 EIA is made mandatory for 29 categories of industries by Govt. of India.

The EIA is having a role in achieving the sustainable goals. Sustainable development is that development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to achieve their needs and aspirations’ (Brundtland Commission, World Commission on environment and Development (WCED), 1987). The concept of sustainable development can be made operational in the form of carrying capacities. EIA is a way of assessing the carrying capacity, which is a function of a number of variables, area of the region, resources under threat, nature of resources, value of the resources and limits of capacity.

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) aims to prevent environmental degradation by giving decision-makers better information about the consequences that development projects could have on the environment. The benefits of EIA are widely recognised, yet the approach has generally been applied primarily to individual projects such as industrial installations or power stations, rather than to the earlier policy decisions that often strongly influence decisions concerning projects. The emerging context of EIA is given in Figure 6.5. Integration of EIA into project cycle is given in Figure 6.6.

Increasingly, Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is being used to assess the consequences of policies, plans and programmes (PPP’s) at the earlier stages of decision-making. Before going for regional development plans, such as industrialisation of a region etc., Strategic Environmental Assessment is important only after such an assessment, individual proposed projects assessment should be done. As a result SEA is likely to become the most direct method for implementing sustainability. The potential benefits of SEA are given in Table 6.2. The direct and indirect effects of policies and programmes are given in Figure 6.7.

Table 6.2 Potential benefits of strategic environmental assessment (Wood and Djeddour, 1992)

· Encourages the consideration of environmental objectives during policy, plan and programme-making activities with in non-Governmental organisations

· Facilitates consultations between authorities on, and enhances public involvement in, evaluation of environmental aspects of policy, plan and programme formulation.

· May render some project EIAs redundant if impacts have been assessed adequately.

· Allows formulation of standard or generic mitigation measures for later projects.

· Encourages consideration of alternatives often ignored or feasible in project EIA.

· Can help determine appropriate sites for projects subsequently subject to EIA.

· Allows more effective analysis of cumulative effects of both large and small projects.

· Encourages and facilitates the consideration of synergistic effects.

· Allows more effective consideration of ancillary or secondary effects and activities.

· Facilitates consideration of long range and delayed impacts.

· Allows analysis of the impacts of policies, which may not be implemented through projects.

Current SEA processes vary considerably. They may be formal / informal, comprehensive or more limited in scope and closely linked with or unrelated to either policy or planning instruments (Prasad, 1998). Regarding SEA, India has little experience and it is yet to be considered as a mandatory procedure for every regional development policies, plans and programmes.

Strategic environmental assessment and Project Environmental Impact assessment differ in five ways. (Wood, 1995).

1. The precision with which spatial implications can be defined is less.

2. The amount of details relating to nature of physical development is less.

3. The lead-time is greater.

4. The decision-making procedures and the organisations involved may differ, requiring a greater degree of co-ordination.

5. The degree of confidentiality may well be greater.

EIAs followed by SEA is important for achieving the sustainable development of a region. India is one of the first developing countries in the world to bring out various legislative measures for the protection of environment. As these two tools are the recent developments India should set an example by strictly implementing the EIA and SEA for various developmental projects for achieving sustainable development.

The legislative measures brought by Government of India for the protection of Environment are given below.

- Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

- Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

- Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977

- Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

- Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

- The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

- The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991
er pollution are direct and indirect and have many dimensions. In this chapter, it has been tried to discuss all such relationships. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) which are the tools in decision making for sustainable development are also discussed. Many scientists in the recent past have published good literature on environmental impacts (Gevirtz (1977), Doremus (1978), Petak (1980), Prahalad (1987), Smith (1993), Wood (1995), Wiesner (1995) and Larry (1996)).

6.2 ECOSPHERE

The ecosphere is part of geoecosphere or earth. Geoecosphere is defined as the interacting terrestrial life and life supporting systems viz. toposphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, pedosphere and biosphere. The interaction of ecosphere with life and other spheres is shown in Figure 6.1. The sustainability of life on geoecosphere depends on the quality of all the above spheres. The rate of change of each geoecospheric component depends on all other spheres too (Richard, 1995). Human beings, being an inherent component of biosphere contribute to the overall sustainability or otherwise of the entire geoecosphere in our own unique way. Industrial outfits; the manifestation of human activity, are clustered to certain zones, very often in and around urban areas. The physical, chemical and biological nature of ecosphere itself is altered as a result of the activities like industrialisation, infrastructure development, etc. Industrialisation often involves generation of different byproducts, which at times are toxic in nature. The hydrosphere (water) and atmosphere (air) act as two important and fast couriers for the dispersal of different waste products generated in the above processes. The hazardous solid waste, which appears immobile, becomes a source for water pollution through leachets. Thus, preservation, protection and conservation of hydrosphere and atmosphere components attain vital significance.

6.3 HYDROSPHERE

As discussed above, the preservation of hydrosphere is vital and this is even substantiated in the study area too. The hydrosphere of Nakkavagu basin suffers mainly from deterioration of quality of water. The high degree of the presence of the pollutants in the water environment of Nakkavagu basin during the last two decades had deteriorated the environment of Nakkavagu basin.

6.4 ROLE OF hUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ENVIRONMENT

The increase in intensity of human activities with the progress of mankind is responsible for the environmental problems on earth. Man is the dominant species on earth in sheer numbers and capacity to change the natural environment can be considered a geological agent of action. The impact of man is largely seen on land and to a lesser extent on sea. On land or at sea the activity is limited to the surface environment only.

In biosphere there is no other species as dominant as man. World Population is increasing exponentially; therefore, earth is overburdened by the present about six billion population. The carrying capacity of earth is reaching a stage of non-sustenance. The progress of human beings at present is at the cost of snatching the living rights of about 30 million species, sharing the living space on this unique planet-earth. Human activity within last three centuries wiped out many species from this earth. Many species are getting extinct even before their discovery.

The development and progress of human beings can be attributed to the geological resources bestowed to human beings by earth. The progress and prosperity of human beings is accelerated mainly by the use of water and minerals (including soil). The irrigation facilities and fertile soil prospered agricultural activity, a very old sector in existence for the past more than 5000 years. Although development of settled agriculture is the precursor for human development, it accelerated only with the usage of implements and domestication of animals. Although the devastation of environment and ecology started since the time man started agriculture, but it accelerated only since industrial revolution.

Extensive discovery and usage of minerals led to industrial development, which accelerated only since 18th century, started in Europe. The raw material for industries involves mining – stripping the earth, these minerals excavated are then concentrated and complex chemicals are formed out of them. In the process of production, only minor part of the raw material turns into the finished product, rest of the chemicals is released as waste into the environment. The hazardous chemicals let into environment are the cause of concern.

6.5 WATER CONTAMINATION

Inorganic, organic and synthetic chemical wastes released by industries in Patancheru are the main causes of water pollution. Synthetic chemicals are the substances never produced in nature, many of these chemicals are so stable that they cannot be broken down by the existing Common Effluent Treatment (CET) process.

Ponds, tanks, lakes, streams and rivers are the natural chemical laboratories for all kinds of chemical reactions. The presence of sunlight, wind, convection currents in water, and the potential energy of the stream mixes and stirs water. Creation of harmful chemicals from harmless chemicals in natural lab is taking place on a wider scale. In routine test’s thousands of complex organic and inorganic chemicals, those resulting from reactions in the natures lab, are not analysed. The impact of all those chemicals on biota dependent on those waters are never known. In situations where degree of toxicity of chemicals is beyond the detection capability of human senses, gravity of the problem is occasionally revealed by the death of domestic animals, fish, etc., as it is happening in Nakkavagu basin. In the past two decades hundreds of cattle, sheep and other domestic animals died after consuming polluted waters, such incidents are reported in the press from time to time.

6.6 INDUSTRIES AND POLLUTION

Environment is being polluted by the release of many hazardous substances by the industries into water, air and soil (Figure 6.2). Many of the substances that are found in polluted environment, were not involved during the evolution of life, therefore they are toxic. Among the 108 elements in the periodic table, 80 are metals and only 17 of these are toxic viz. Be, Se, Os, Cd, Pb, Hg, As, Tl, Sb, V, Cr, Te, Ni, Co, Zn, U and Mn. Among the above following metals are analysed Se, As, Cd, Pb, Hg, Cr and Zn of which Hg, As, Se and Pb are found to be polluting the water environment of Nakkavagu basin (Ref: Chapter – V).

Man knows more than seven million chemicals and some 80,000 are in common use. The carbon-based chemicals account over 90 percent of world production of organic chemicals and a large proportion of fertilisers. About 800 to 1000 new chemical compounds are introduced each year (Struan, 1990). The presence of large number of pharmaceutical and chemical industries in and around Patancheru is responsible for releasing organic chemicals into the environment.

Water is an important medium for spreading toxic substances in the environment. Water also helps in chemical reactions among dissolved substances; therefore water is a kind of chemical reactor in nature’s lab, which can alter chemical composition and thereby the toxicity of many substances. Water molecules cause ionisation. Ions are reactive, and form different substances, which could be more or less, toxic, dissolvable, volatile and able to bioconcentrate. The less oxygen combined with the metal and the more acid in the water, the more dissolvable the metal. Dissolved metals are easily taken up by plants and ingested by animals.

The industrial pollution can be broadly classified into inorganic and organic pollution. Inorganics from industrial sources can be broadly divided into metals, salts, and acids and bases. The metals are usually found in low concentrations near localised sources of pollution, but this is balanced by their high human toxicity. Because they are adsorbed onto minerals their mobility is restricted. Trace metals are the metals present in the environment or in the human body in very low concentrations, such as copper, iron, and zinc. Heavy metals are those trace metals whose densities are at least five times greater than water, such as cadmium, lead and mercury. Toxic metals are all those metals whose concentrations in the environment are now considered to be harmful at least to some people in some places. Once mobile, metals find their way by many ways into the biotic systems through, water, food and air. Chronic poisoning by long term exposure to low levels of metals is of more concern then acute effects. Organo-metallic compounds are more poisonous than the simple inorganic compounds as they are highly soluble for example alkyl-mercuric compounds.

Industrial processing often involves derivation of salts as various by-products. Anions from salts are very mobile and move with the groundwater, cations are generally less mobile and undergo ion exchange or adsorption. Some salts contribute to pollution primarily by their high concentration levels; other salts like arsenic contribute to pollution because of their toxicity. Acids and bases in the groundwater are neutralised by aquifer rocks resulting in a salinity increase. Salt incrustations are commonly found along the banks of Nakkavagu and Pamulavagu and also in the fields using polluted waters for irrigation.

6.7 Industries and Micro-climate

The air pollution has far reaching impact on environment; the pollutants transported by air as suspended particulate matter or aerosols or in the form of various gases ultimately return back to earth elsewhere, through precipitation or dry deposition. There is every chance that such pollutants find their way into the water environment directly or indirectly. Smog formation and acid rains, which are the two mechanisms of air pollution, have the tendency to alter the microclimate of the region. Heat island effect is one of the direct / indirect symptoms of air pollution.

6.7.1 Smog

In the study area, the diurnal temperature variations are usually high. Occasionally on clear and calm winter night’s, temperature inversions are witnessed that leads to condensation just above the ground surface called fog. Particles of smoke and poisonous gases such as sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, etc., released from the industries couple with fog to form smog. The smog is a health hazard. The smog is more common in Patancheru industrial area especially in the low-lying areas during winters.

6.7.2 Acid rains

Acid rains are indirect sources of water pollution through air. The normal rain is slightly acidic (about pH 5), due to dissolved carbondioxide and other naturally occurring acids in the atmosphere. Rain with pH less than normal values in a region are called acid rain. The air pollutants like sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide etc., are released into the environment in an industrial area. Under dry conditions in atmosphere the gases react chemically with sunlight results in photochemical smog, it is a foul smelling yellowish haze rich in ozone, running eyes and noses, coughing are the symptoms, sometimes can lead to death. The photochemical smog cannot be ignored. Under wet conditions in atmosphere, like the presence of clouds, precipitation leads to acid rains. Acidity of rainwater, flowing into streams and lakes is reduced by rocks containing calcium which neutralises the acid. The granite rocks in Nakkavagu basin, which contain little calcium, do not neutralise acid rain, so the acids enter rivers and destroy the ecosystem. pH less then 5.5 leads to reduction in fish numbers, and fish death occurs below pH 5. Acid rainwater releases aluminium from rocks, which is poisonous to fish and plants. Acid rain kills forests over large areas called ‘forest dieback’. The archaeological monuments like temples, mosques and graveyards plastered by mortar are etched or eaten away. The archaeological sites in and around Patancheru several hundred years old are under threat. Acid rains in and around industrial areas have the tendency to pollute surface water and groundwater resources.

6.7.3 Heat island

Industries contribute to the rise in atmospheric temperature called ‘Heat island’; this phenomenon is experimentally proved for many large cities. Industrial areas such as those concentrated in Nakkavagu basin too contribute largely for raise in temperatures and for changes in the local climatic conditions.

The heat in the industrial areas released by the machinery, exothermic chemical reactions, and vehicles, burning of fossil fuel, wood and from other heat energy sources. The continuous release of green house gases such as carbondioxide, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s), etc., creates a bubble like shield of several square kilometers around an industrial area and the surrounding rural areas. There is usually high dust content in the air released by the various processes in an industrial area. The greenhouse gases and the dust allow the solar radiation but they prevent the out going long radiation, therefore heat is trapped. Consequently, the microclimate in and around an industrial area would be warmer then the surrounding open countryside. The dust particles and the gases like sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, chlorine, fluorine, bromine, carbon monoxide, etc., are hygroscopic in nature encourage condensation, that leads to cloud cover, the clouds again act as heat blanket.

6.8 TOXICITY

The quantum of pollutant to which each individual is exposed is called the dose, and the amount of health damage is called the response. Dose is usually expressed in one of the three ways, a) The amount of substance actually in the body. b) The amount of the material entering the body (usually in food, drinking water, or the air). c) The concentration in the environment (Harte et al. 1991). Toxicity of pollutants is shown in hypothetical dose-response curve (Figure 6.3)

The assimilation of xenobiotic chemicals within organism at sub-lethal or lethal levels may induce a sequence of biological effects. These range from molecular interference with biochemical mechanisms and interactions with cellular organelles (e.g. DNA and RNA molecules), through to pathological changes at the cellular, tissue, and organ levels. Finally, these result in an integrated functional or behavioural response, experienced at the whole organism level, which may be reversible or irreversible (Des and Gregory, 1984).

Bio-magnification is an indirect route of pollutants reaching species at higher trophic levels, through an endless cyclic transfer of food material from life to life. Often the victims are identified lately and by the time of discovery a large community is under impact of pollution. This kind of pollution requires a thorough study of all the paths of food chains. Ultimately the estimation of impact of pollution on human beings is possible through epidemiological studies. It is the search for statistical associations between the occurrence of disease in a population and the factors suspected of causing the disease.

6.8.1 Toxics Found in Nakkavagu Basin

The following are the toxicants, which are being used by the industries in the production. Many of these toxicants would be consumed in part only for end product, rest of the chemicals are released as wastes, would pollute the water environment of Nakkavagu basin. The health and environmental impacts discussed are from Harte et al., 1991.

Acetone:

Other names: Dimethyl ketone; 2-propanone; pyroacetic ether; ketone propane.

Health Effects:

Inhalation of very high concentrations can depress the central nervous system, causing dizziness, weakness, and loss of consciousness. The presence of large amounts of acetone in the body can increase the liver toxicity of carbon tetrachloride. Ingestion of acetone causes central nervous system depression, high blood sugar levels, and high levels of acetone in the blood.

Ammonia:

Other names: Ammonia water; ammonium hydroxide.

Health effects:

The symptoms of ammonia exposure are a burning sensation (in the eyes, nose and throat), pain in the lungs, headache, nausea, tearing, coughing and an increased breathing rate. Concentrations are shown in table below.

Health effect

Concentration

Environmental effects:

Ammonia (NH3) adds nitrogen to the environment. In areas that cannot handle the added nitrogen, disruptions to the ecosystem will result. These include toxic effects on plants, fish, and animals and changes in the balance of species. Although ammonia is a base, it actually acidifies soil by its rapid conversion to nitrate (NO3), releasing hydrogen ions just like other acids.

Arsenic:

Physical and chemical properties: Arsenic and selenium are antagonistic toxins: exposure to one reduces the adverse effects of the other.

Health effects:

Lung cancer from inhaling arsenic and skin cancer from swallowing it are the two most dangerous effects of arsenic exposure for the general population. Inorganic is considered as the highest category of cancer-causing chemicals. Acute arsenic poisoning is characterised by severe gastrointestinal damage resulting in vomiting and diarrhea and general vascular collapse leading to shock, coma, and even death.

Environmental Effects:

Arsenic is toxic to plants in high concentrations. Eventually the trees may become totally unproductive.

Benzene:

Other Names: Benzol; carbon oil; coal tar naphtha; cyclohexatriene; phenyl hydride; pyrobenzole

Health effects: Acute exposure following ingestion or excessive inhalation depresses the central nervous system resulting in headache, dizziness, nausea, convulsions, coma, and possibly death. It is considered as carcinogen. Leukemia –induced death rate of 95 per 1000 workers based on an assumed lifetime occupational exposure.

Environmental effects: Benzene is a long term contaminant of groundwater because it cannot readily evaporate underground, and since little microbial activity occurs in underground water, it is not degraded.

Cadmium:

Health Effects:

Inhaled cadmium is associated with lung cancer in people. Chronic exposure to low levels of cadmium may also result in progressive lung diseases such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Chronic exposure to cadmium is also associated with a wide range of other diseases, including heart disease, anemia, skeletal weakening, depressed immune system response, and kidney and live disease.

Environmental Effects:

Cadmium is strongly accumulated by organisms at all levels. Cadmium has the potential to concentrate in the food chain.

Copper:

Health Effects:

Copper deficiency leads to anemia, growth retardation, defective keratigization, hypothermia, mental deterioration etc. Excess copper leads to diseases like hepatitis, cirrhosis tremor, kayser fleisher rings and renal dysfunction.

Chromium:

Health Effects:

Chromium metal appears to be biologically inert and no harmful effects have been reported. Chromium compounds are responsible for the majority of all adverse effects of chromium. Chromium can produce liver and kidney damage, internal haemorrhage, dermatitis, respiratory damage, and lung cancer. Longer-term exposures to the respiratory tract and skin can produce perforated and ulcerated nasal septa, inflammation of the nasal passages, frequent nose bleeds, and skin ulcers.

Dioxane:

Other Names: 1,4-Dioxane; p-dioxan; di(ethylene oxide); diethylene dioxide; diethylene ether; diethylene oxide.

Dioxane is a synthetic organic compound.

Health effects:

Chronic exposure to dioxane is also hazardous. Prolonged skin exposure can cause a rash or burn. Repeated exposure to levels that do not cause symptoms can lead to slowed central nervous system function and to liver and kidney damage. These symptoms may be delayed because the chemical has a tendency to accumulate in body tissue. When dioxane is present in chlorinated water, a highly toxic compound is formed. Its toxicity is 1000 times.

Environmental effects:

Dioxane could pose a toxic threat to the groundwater supplies if concentrations are high enough, because of slow microbial degradation and it cannot evaporate easily from groundwater.

Ethylene Dichloride (EDC):

Health effects:

Central nervous system and gastrointestinal problems such as dizziness, nausea, headache, vomiting, diarrhea, dilated pupils, weak pulse, cyanosis, and unconsciousness. Kidney and liver damage. In mammals metabolism of EDC produces metabolites (including chloroacetaldehyde, chloroacetic acid, and chloroethanol) that appear to be several times more toxic than the parent compound. The metabolic products bind strongly to DNA than does EDC; such binding reactions are involved in the development of mutations, birth defects, and cancers.

Environmental effects:

Groundwater contaminant as evaporation rates from underground water is low.

Fluoride:

Health Effects:

The intake of small, recommended amounts of fluoride provides partial protection against tooth decay (dental caries). There is also evidence that small doses of fluoride can help stimulate bone growth in patients with osteoporosis. Over consumption leads to gastrointestinal illness, nausea, and vomiting. Long-term exposure to high levels of fluoride in drinking water can lead to a serious condition called severe skeletal fluorosis, or crippling fluorosis. In this disease, fluoride causes irregular bone deposits to form, which can lead to severe pain in joints and eventual crippling. Mottling of the teeth (dental fluorosis) is the most widespread effect of fluoride. As tooth enamel forms in childhood.

Formaldehyde:

Other Names: Formalin; Methyl aldehyde.

Highly water soluble, colourless gas with pungent odour and irritant properties.

Health effects: Formaldehyde is a possible carcinogen. Health effects at various concentrations are given in table below.

Effect

Concentration (in ppm)

Iron:

Health Effects:

Iron deficiency leads to anemia but exposure to excess iron leads to hepatitic failure, diabetes and testicular atrophy etc.

Lead:

Health Effects:

Lead affects the human nervous system, the production of blood cells, kidneys, reproductive system, and behaviour. The risks of lead poisoning are greatest in children and in pregnant women. Health effects at various blood lead levels are given in table below.
Health Effect

Blood Lead Concentration (ppb/100ml)

Manganese:

Health Effects:

Deficiency leads to bleeding disorder whereas excess leads to diseases such as encephalitis, psychosis, parkinson syndrome and pneumoconiosis.

Mercury:
Other Name: Quick silver

Health Effects:

In addition to pure mercury compounds of mercury can also be harmful. Methyl mercury accumulated in fish by biomagnification, is rapidly absorbed by people who eat such fish and can readily pass through the placenta of pregnant women, exposing developing fetuses, and through the blood-brain barrier into the brain. High exposure leads to damages to nervous system, Memory losses, tremors, emotional instability (anxiety and irritability), insomnia, and loss of appetite characterise milder exposures. Introversion appears to be the most prominent personality trait in affected people. At moderate exposures, more significant mental disorders and motor disturbances as well as kidney damage, are seen.

Environmental effects:

-Inorganic mercury discharges by industry are converted by bacteria water and in sediments to organic methylmercury. The organic form, methylmercury accumulates in aquatic food chain through the process of biomagnification.

-Acid rain and the increasing acidification of surface waters, more acidic conditions shift the organic mercury to forms that are more readily absorbed by fish (dimethyl to monomethylmercury), thus raising the levels in fish to which humans are ultimately exposed.

-Freshwater species are more vulnerable than marine species because selenium in seawater provides partial protection against mercury’s effects.

Methylene Chloride:

Other Names: Dichloromethene; methane dichloride; methylene dichloride

Health effects:

Methyl chloride is a common pollutant of air and groundwater. The major exposure is through inhalation. Methyl chloride readily absorbed once inside the lungs. Absorbed methylene chloride is distributed throughout the body and easily crosses the blood-brain barrier and the placenta. It can also be found in the breast milk of exposed women. Once inside the body, methylene chloride is rapidly converted to carbon monoxide, although it can also be stored in body fat. People exposed to high levels of methylene chloride show decreased manual performance and attention lapses. Heart arrhythmias and death have been ascribed to excessively high levels of the solvent in air. Methylene chloride may cause cancer.

Environmental Effects:

Methylene chloride stays in the groundwater for many years. It does not stick well to soil particles and thus allowing it to move great distances in an aquifer following its release into soil.

Nitrogen dioxide:
Health effects: Some health effects of Nitrogen Dioxide exposure

Effect

Concentration

Environmental Effects:

Nitric acid, the end product of nitrogen dioxide chemical reaction is the end product in air. Acid rain is a threat to plants and freshwater fauna.

Selenium:

Health Effects:

Selenium is the metallic element required in small amount for human health, but which in large quantities can be toxic. Chronic selenium poisoning results in loss of hair and fingernails, with disorders of skin, nervous system, and teeth also reported. Selenium has shown to reduce the toxicity of cadmium, inorganic and dimethyl mercury, thallium, and silver by altering the way these metals react in the body.

Environmental Effects:

Selenium intoxication of farm animals is a well-known condition that accumulates selenium from soils rich in the substance. Chronic ingestion over periods of weeks or months can produce two conditions; the blind staggers-affected animals have impaired vision and alkali disease-signs include liver cirrhosis, hoof malformations, loss of hair and emaciation.

Sulphur Dioxide:

Health effects:

Effect

Concentration (ppm)

Environmental effects:

The most severe damage is caused by the conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid in the atmosphere and its subsequent deposition as acid rain and dry acid particles.

Toluene:

Other Names: Methylbenzene; methylbenzol; phenylmethane; toluol.

Health effects:

Upon inhalation, the vapours aggravate the respiratory tract, depress the central nervous system, and damage the liver and kidneys. Exposure of pregnant women to toluene has been associated with damage to the unborn child.

Environmental Effects:

In the atmosphere toluene contributes to the problem of photochemical smog. Natural plant and animal populations are likely to be at risk from industrial and vehicle-related releases of toluene because natural levels are very low in comparison.

Zinc:

Other Names: Chinese white; flowers of zinc; philosopher’s wool; zinc white and zincite.

Health Effects:

Zinc is required for human health; over-consumption of zinc may impair heart function. It is the most common metal found in Human tissues after iron. Much zinc can result in a condition called zinc toxicosis. Over consumption of zinc leads to stomach distress, cramps, nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea.

Environmental Effects:

Zinc is more a hazard to aquatic organisms than to humans. In areas around smelters and mine runoff, plant growth is depressed and aquatic life and waterfowl are impaired. The effects of zinc are greater in soft water than in hard water.

6.9 People

Nakkavagu basin and surrounding areas are being inhabited for more than 2 million years. These indigenous peoples life is in jeopardy at this juncture of history, the development that claims the progress of life and mankind also acts against it. The sons of the soil are nowhere safe on this earth, more unlikely near the industrial areas. Pollution does not have limits; the cause and effect can reach any distances, by any media and means.

The traditional knowledge has little meaning in the modern industries. Industrialisation is meaningful if it brings real development in the lives of indigenous people. In the name of development of backward Districts as in the case of Medak District, industrialisation is alone not justified. The agricultural activity with options of irrigation sources falls under intensive agriculture zone, that is intensive dairy farming and horticultural activity. Around Hyderabad this is the only region best suitable for intensive agricultural activity, having the finest watershed management.

Patancheru is the sub-urban part of Hyderabad; this region is prosperous in comparison to other interior parts of the District which are really backward, the development of those parts would have been justified, if at all there is any interest to develop the backward Medak District.

The industrial activity is secondary which requires skilled persons and literates, or else it becomes an attractive place for the immigrants and in real terms of development little does the local people will be benefited directly in the form of jobs. With the proximity to Hyderabad in-fact the industrialisation benefited the immigrants and other residents in securing jobs then the indigenous rural population. The Medak District overall got benefited very little. The industries are thriving at the cost of environmental degradation. It is difficult to evaluate and estimate the total losses to property and life, due to pollution. The industrialisation in this part of Medak District benefited the local population very little, but it could have earned riches for the state and the nation in the form of foreign exchange and taxes. The bulk drug industries providing succour to millions of people elsewhere but same industries causing diseases and / or death of the local people. These industrialists have not taken any major social service work for the local people, though it is the social and moral responsibility of industrialists towards them. The industrialisation in this part of Medak District has given more sufferings to the indigenous people then prosperity.

6.10 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES

As far as human beings are considered, developmental activities in a region are weighed by positive and negative Socio-economic parameters. Any developmental activity is meaningless unless majority of local population is benefited out of it. Socio-economic impact is equally important as biophysical impact, but in majority of Environmental Impact Assessment’s less importance is given for Socio-Economic impact. It is often found that industrial pollution and its impact on biophysical environment are overlooked if socio-economic benefits are considerable.

The socio-economic impacts are determined by the type of projects and upon the host environmental characteristics of the region. Socio-economic impacts are of various types. Direct impact is the creation of employment opportunities for local and non-local people. The educational and industrial training institutes at local level provide opportunities for the local population in the skilled sector. The attraction of higher wages leads to some people shifting from less promising traditional occupations. Industrial development also leads to shortage of agricultural labour, as they shift to industries for work, which provides higher wages. The leakage from multiplier benefits would lessen if the percentage of local labour employment were high. The cause-effect diagram for the local socio-economic impacts due to industrial development is shown in Figure 6.4.

6.11 LANDSCAPE

The industrialisation and other developmental activities in Nakkavagu basin brought changes in the landscape by the construction of buildings, laying of roads, release of pollutants, etc. Landscape is an important national resource and an outstanding natural and cultural inheritance, which is widely appreciated for its aesthetic beauty and is important contribution to regional identity and sense of place. Although it is subject to evolution and change, the landscape is recognised as a resource of value to future generations. The following is an initial list of factors that contribute to landscape (Goodey, 1995).

· Physical: geology, landform, climate, and micro-climate, drainage, soil, ecology

· Human: archaeology, landscape history, land use, buildings and settlements

· Aesthetic:

· Visual, e.g. proportion, scale, enclosure, texture, colour, views

· Other senses e.g. sounds, smells, tastes, touch

· Associations:

· Historical, e.g. history of settlements, special events

· Cultural, e.g. well known personalities, literature, painting, music.

The indigenous people associated with the local landscape since childhood will find it difficult to appreciate the changed landscape. For the youngsters who are born after establishment of industries between 10 to 20 years of age, there is no comparative landscape of any kind in their minds, as they have not experienced anything better landscape since their birth. The elderly persons were nostalgic when asked to compare the landscape that they witnessed before and after industrial development.

Nakkavagu was the center of activity for the people of Bachuguda village; people were seen taking bath in the waters, catching fish, washing cloths, etc. It was also the place for domestic animals for drinking water and taking bath in those waters. Such scenes in the landscape of Nakkavagu are missing at present.

The pollution of environment will lead to mental disturbance too. The pitch dark polluted waters with floating oils and grease and the bad odour emanating from the water repels people from approaching them. The change in the composition of plant species brought total change in the landscape of the area. Birds are appearing less in numbers as they have migrated elsewhere, at very few non-polluted lakes large population of diverse birds are seen, example Lakdaram tank. Aesthetics of the region is spoiled completely by the industrial pollution.

6.12 CONCEPTS OF EIA AND SEA:

Environmental impact can be defined as any change in the environment that is caused by an activity or a factor. The change caused by an activity may be physical, chemical, biological, social or economic. (Ramaswamy et al. 1990). History of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is given in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 History of developments in Environment and EIA.

1947 Representatives of 24 nations and many private societies met at Switzerland to propose the creation of an ‘International Union for Conservation of Nature’ (IUCN) which came into being in 1948 under UNESCO.

Mid-1960’s Warning from scientists – climate change – increasing carbondioxide.

Late 1960’s Environmental awakening.

1962 Rachel Carson – ‘Silent Spring’ – About the use of pesticides – a great impact on masses.

1969 National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA), USA, launched EIA and EIS.

Pre 1970 Legislation’s enacted by many countries – air and water pollution, soil erosion.

1970’s A decade of response and action.

1971. World Bank – Environmental Unit – Environmental reconnaissance on hydro projects and guidelines on EIA.

1972 UN conference on Human Environment, Stockholm, Sweden.

1974 UN conference on the Population.

1976 UN conference on Human Settlements.

1987. Asia Development Bank (ADB) – Environmental unit – guidelines on EIA.

1990 Resource Management Act, New Zealand – Principle of sustainability.

1994 EIA is made mandatory for 29 categories of industries by Govt. of India.

The EIA is having a role in achieving the sustainable goals. Sustainable development is that development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to achieve their needs and aspirations’ (Brundtland Commission, World Commission on environment and Development (WCED), 1987). The concept of sustainable development can be made operational in the form of carrying capacities. EIA is a way of assessing the carrying capacity, which is a function of a number of variables, area of the region, resources under threat, nature of resources, value of the resources and limits of capacity.

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) aims to prevent environmental degradation by giving decision-makers better information about the consequences that development projects could have on the environment. The benefits of EIA are widely recognised, yet the approach has generally been applied primarily to individual projects such as industrial installations or power stations, rather than to the earlier policy decisions that often strongly influence decisions concerning projects. The emerging context of EIA is given in Figure 6.5. Integration of EIA into project cycle is given in Figure 6.6.

Increasingly, Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is being used to assess the consequences of policies, plans and programmes (PPP’s) at the earlier stages of decision-making. Before going for regional development plans, such as industrialisation of a region etc., Strategic Environmental Assessment is important only after such an assessment, individual proposed projects assessment should be done. As a result SEA is likely to become the most direct method for implementing sustainability. The potential benefits of SEA are given in Table 6.2. The direct and indirect effects of policies and programmes are given in Figure 6.7.

Table 6.2 Potential benefits of strategic environmental assessment (Wood and Djeddour, 1992)

· Encourages the consideration of environmental objectives during policy, plan and programme-making activities with in non-Governmental organisations

· Facilitates consultations between authorities on, and enhances public involvement in, evaluation of environmental aspects of policy, plan and programme formulation.

· May render some project EIAs redundant if impacts have been assessed adequately.

· Allows formulation of standard or generic mitigation measures for later projects.

· Encourages consideration of alternatives often ignored or feasible in project EIA.

· Can help determine appropriate sites for projects subsequently subject to EIA.

· Allows more effective analysis of cumulative effects of both large and small projects.

· Encourages and facilitates the consideration of synergistic effects.

· Allows more effective consideration of ancillary or secondary effects and activities.

· Facilitates consideration of long range and delayed impacts.

· Allows analysis of the impacts of policies, which may not be implemented through projects.

Current SEA processes vary considerably. They may be formal / informal, comprehensive or more limited in scope and closely linked with or unrelated to either policy or planning instruments (Prasad, 1998). Regarding SEA, India has little experience and it is yet to be considered as a mandatory procedure for every regional development policies, plans and programmes.

Strategic environmental assessment and Project Environmental Impact assessment differ in five ways. (Wood, 1995).

1. The precision with which spatial implications can be defined is less.

2. The amount of details relating to nature of physical development is less.

3. The lead-time is greater.

4. The decision-making procedures and the organisations involved may differ, requiring a greater degree of co-ordination.

5. The degree of confidentiality may well be greater.

EIAs followed by SEA is important for achieving the sustainable development of a region. India is one of the first developing countries in the world to bring out various legislative measures for the protection of environment. As these two tools are the recent developments India should set an example by strictly implementing the EIA and SEA for various developmental projects for achieving sustainable development.

The legislative measures brought by Government of India for the protection of Environment are given below.

- Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

- Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

- Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977

- Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

- Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

- The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

- The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991

5.1 INTRODUCTION

It is predicted that the 21st century would witness hydropolitics that could even result in wars for water at all levels (international, national and regional). The hydrosphere presently holds about 1,384,120,000 km3 of water in solid, liquid and gaseous states, of that most of which is stored in the oceans. Only 2.6 percent is fresh water, of this, 77.23 percent is frozen in ice caps, icebergs, and glaciers. Groundwater found up to a depth of 4kms that accounts for another 22.21 percent of fresh water. The remaining little water is stored in the soil, lakes, rivers, the biosphere and atmosphere. Therefore, fresh water is the precious commodity for all terrestrial life on earth.

The protection of freshwater sources like lakes, tanks, rivers, streams and groundwater from pollution is fundamental to food production, public health and health of all living species. Toxic pollutants released into the freshwater due to the so-called developmental activities by human beings can render water unfit for supporting life.

Water environment and pollution studies are carried out by several scientists (Mortimer (1942), Anderman (1973), Gibbs (1973), Golterman (1975), Trutt (1975), Stevenson (1975), Zafar (1976), D’Itri (1977), Dunne (1978), Jackson (1979), Gulati (1980), Satyamohan (1980), Hammer (1981), Faust (1981), Achammamba (1984), Sinha (1986), Welch (1992), Kodarkar (1995), Sastry (1996) and Wilby (1997)). On environmental pollution too several scientists have worked (Carson (1962), Sandbach (1982), Chand (1989), Alloway (1993), Baird (1995)).

The major problem associated with industrial activity in Patancheru area is the deterioration of quality of water from its industrial wastes. The chemicals from a wide range of industries including pharmaceutical industries release chemical wastes into the environment thereby polluting the water environment. In Figure 5.1 location of tanks, streams, settlements and industries are shown. The practice of using drainage system and tanks for disposal of industrial effluents resulted in devastation of surface and groundwater environments, in Nakkavagu basin.

The areas other than Patancheru industrial area within Nakkavagu basin, which are affected by water pollution include Chitkul, Chidruppa, Sultanpur, Eardanoor, Arutla, Baithole, Gandigudem, Pocharam, Ganapathigudem, Ismailkhanpet, Inole, Lakdaram, Bachuguda and Peddakanjerla.

5.2 NAKKAVAGU BASIN

In water pollution impact assessments, the basins are considered as units, because the movement of surface and ground waters is mainly restricted to the basin alone till they join a higher order basin.

The Nakkavagu basin is the sixth order basin, since the Nakkavagu stream is a sixth order stream. The catchment area of Nakkavagu basin is 734 square kilometers; it appears polygonal in plan (Figure 5.2). The catchment area lies mainly in the Medak District and partly in Rangareddy District. Nakkavagu originates to the south of Patancheru near Kollur and joins Manjira River near Gaudcherla village after travelling a total distance of 35kms. Initially Nakkavagu is known as ‘Maisammavagu’, from Kardanoor it is popularly known as Nakkavagu. A major tributary of Nakkavagu is Pamulavagu, a fifth order stream, which flows from the north-east direction of the basin and joins Nakkavagu at Bachuguda village of Patancheru Mandal. The Nakkavagu initially travels north up to Bachuguda village, after the confluence of Pamulavagu it travels in the north-north-west direction up to Chidruppa, from here it takes a turn in the north-west direction and forms a ‘S’ shaped meandering loop before joining with Manjira river at Gaudcherla. Manjira River ultimately ends up in Godavari River at Kandukurthi Bridge in Nizamabad District. Nizamsagar is the reservoir constructed over Manjira River at the border between Medak and Nizamabad Districts.

Nakkavagu has largely dendritic drainage pattern. This kind of drainage pattern is very commonly associated with areas of uniform lithology, horizontal or very gently dipping strata, and low relief. They comprise a multitude of small branch streams, which join each other, usually at fairly acute angles, to nourish a large trunk stream. While the drainage density depends on the permeability of the underlying rock and precipitation. Drainage density is high on north-eastern portion of Nakkavagu basin that is to the right of Nakkavagu stream. Rain water flows in Nakkavagu normally for a period of 4 to 6 months during Monsoon and Post-monsoon periods, and the rest of the year industrial effluent flows along the water course. Presently the water flowing in Nakkavagu in any given season is more, in comparison to the flow conditions before industrialisation. Since all the industrial effluents will finally end up in the Nakkavagu.

5.2.1 Drainage System

Drainage of Nakkavagu is highly altered by the interference of man through many centuries. The flowing waters are tamed through construction of a series of tanks and channels. The characteristics of the drainage system of Nakkavagu is given below:

a) The drainage pattern is mainly considered as sub-parallel and dendritic which is characteristic in granitic terrain.

b) Radial drainage is observed on the north of Lakdaram cheruvu, streamlets radiating from kopje like granitic structure (Figure 5.2(a)).

c) A tributary of Nakkavagu emerging from Peddacheruvu outflow, flows parallel to Nakkavagu for a distance of about 6 kms before joining with Nakkavagu near Baitul village (Figure 5.2(e)). The semi-parallel drainage system observed at many places along Nakkavagu can be attributed to the paleo-flow channels of Nakkavagu. For example the stream of Arutla and another stream north of Bachuguda (Figure 5.2(d) & 5.2(f)).

d) ‘S” shaped meandering of Nakkavagu, before its confluence with Manjira River at Gaudcherla is the prominent feature of Nakkavagu (Figure 5.2(c)).

d) The drainage is also affected by roadways, railway line, development of industries and construction of houses etc. As it is easy to alter drainage of streamlets they got most affected. The provision of culverts or bridges over larger streams lessened the alteration of natural drainage.

5.2.2 Tanks

Artificial lake is called ‘tank’ it is locally called as cheruvu or cheru or kunta. They are largely seen in regions of uncertain rainfall. They are formed in natural hollows or depressions or sloping land by building a dam or bund on the lower side to hold water, by enclosing a semi-circular or semi-elliptical area. Some times artificial tanks are created by removing earth to create depression and then bund is laid, which are usually oblong in shape. The area irrigated by a tank is called its ayacut.

The tanks are serving two important purposes in controlling the floods and as an insurance against crop failure during drought. Water collected in the tanks is the major source of water for meeting domestic, agricultural needs of human beings and for supporting all other living things of the region. They have a prime role in the development of the region and therefore they are essential in the area.

The characteristics of the tanks in Nakkavagu basin are given below:

a) Intensive integrated watershed management was done in Nakkavagu basin, in the past. Almost all the second order and some higher order streams are tapped through construction of bunds and creation of tanks.

b) Smaller tanks are constructed in the fertile agricultural fields. The main purpose of these tanks is for recharging the groundwater and less important as a source for flow irrigation. Centuries of flooding of streams and streamlets resulted in deposition of huge thickness of alluvium. The soil in such places is highly permeable and construction of huge tanks for storage of water for flow irrigation is impossible. Therefore a series of small tanks are constructed in those regions, they are the places for recharging the groundwater aquifers. As a result groundwater raises high on the downward side of the tank. High density of dug-wells and bore-wells are found on the downward side of such tanks, for example, a number of such tanks and bore-wells are seen on the north of Nakkavagu, between Chidruppa and Tarkhanpet (Figure 5.2(i)).

c) Non-cultivable rocky wastelands at higher contour levels are selected for construction of very large tanks. These places are less permeable so there ought to be lesser leakage’s, therefore such places are put to best use by construction of large tanks for storing water example, Lakdaram tank (Figure 5.2(b)), Peddacheruvu (Figure 5.2(g)) etc. In this way the wastelands are also contributing to the economic prosperity of a region indirectly. Rocky granite areas are least useful for cultivation, so they are of least use. All the rainwater falling on such areas will ultimately move to lower reaches quickly, as a result all the water would have been wasted in the absence of tanks in such places. The wastelands increase the total availability of rainwater per unit area under cultivation, if the water falling upon wastelands is fully harvested and utilised for cultivable lands. The rocky wastelands too have a role in sustaining the agricultural activity of the region.

d) Eye like small depressions observed at many places are non-perennial water sources, at the time of rains they overflow leading to streamlets. During rainy season some of these act as percolation pits. Some of these small depressions located close to many of the villages could be the result of excavation for clay or mud and the raw material for construction purpose. Such a usage is still seen around Patancheru town, intensive brick making activity is going on around Patancheru.

e) Some tanks are oblong and square shape in plan, indicating that many of these tanks are dug and constructed for the purpose of storing water. Example, Ismailkhanpet south tank (Figure 5.2(j)) and Peddacheruvu of Chitkul (Figure 5.2(g)). These tanks are usually shallow; the range between full tank level and low tank level is high. Whereas the bund constructed directly over natural depression usually appears like ‘delta’ in plan (Figure 5.2(k)), which ranges between full tank level, and low tank level is very high as a result the storage capacity is also high. The dugout tanks involve huge costs, so preference will be given for the construction of bunds along the natural valleys of the streams. Therefore, dugout tanks are found few in numbers in Nakkavagu basin.

f) Canals are dug out to divert the flood-waters from the streams they ultimately end up in the tanks, which are specially constructed for this purpose, for example Muttangi village tank (Figure 5.2(h)).

g) Two types of water outlet systems are existing for the tanks. The controlled central point of opening which is manually operated, facilitates controlled irrigation, whereas spill-way is to let out the excess waters as a security against bund failure and for filling the tanks down-stream from excess waters. A series of tanks are constructed on the down-stream to see that no water goes waste from spillways.

h) Some of the tanks of the past are silted up completely; therefore very little or no water can be stored in them. Such tank-bed areas are at present under cultivation. The soil (silt deposited in the tank bed) deposited over a period of time in these tanks is fertile.

i) In Bollaram industrial area, nearly 95 % of the tanks are of non-perennial water source category, in Bachuguda area about half of the tanks are perennial sources of water.

5.3 INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION IN NAKKAVAGU BASIN

Case studies of 10 pharmaceutical industries located in Nakkavagu basin are considered to evaluate the quantity of hazardous raw material utilised in the production (Table 5.1). The difference between the total raw material consumed and the quantity of product produced is the material that would ultimately enter into the environment of Nakkavagu basin, in the form of solid, liquid or gaseous state. Of which only a part of the material is recovered and most of the remaining wastes are the effluents, which are partially treated and are then released into the environment. Total quantity of products produced by these 10 industries is about 1881.5 tonnes and the total quantity of hazardous raw material used is about 8146 tonnes i.e. on an average about 4.3 times of hazardous raw material is utilised for every unit of the product produced. These industries are using organic and inorganic hazardous chemicals as raw material.

The hazardous and toxic chemicals identified under schedule one and part two of ‘The Manufacture, Storage and import of Hazardous chemicals Rules, 1989’, are being utilised in the production by many industries. They are, Acetone, Acetyl chloride, Ammonia, Aniline, Benzene, Bromine, Chlorine, Chlorosulphonic acid, Dimethylcaromyl, Dioxane, Ethylene dichloride, Formaldehyde, Hexane, Hydrochloric acid, Maleic anhydride, Methylene chloride, Nitrobenzene, Nitrogen dioxide, Nitrogen oxides, Phenol, Phenyl glycidal ether, Sodium cyanide, Sulphuric acid, Thionyl chloride, Toluene and Triethylamine. There are four possible potential hazardous problems associated with the use of chemicals; they are

1) Hazardous waste products.

2) These chemicals are a potential occupational hazard to the workers.

3) The containers used for storage and transport are being reused for domestic purposes. Thousands of such containers are sold every year, which are supposed to be disposed off safely.

4) They can find their way into the environment through mishandling and leakage’s etc.

5.3.1 Common Effluent Treatment Plants

There are two Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs), which are established at Patancheru and Bollaram.

5.3.1.1 CETP – Patancheru

The association of industries in the year 1994 constructed a CETP at Patancheru. The effluent treatment plant is meant for treating 7,500 cubic meters per day. The total members of CETP-Patancheru are 128 industries, presently only 72 industries are contributing their effluents to CETP.

The treatment process at CETP can be grouped into three categories respectively i.e. 1) Effluent collection and equalisation 2) Physico-chemical treatment and 3) Biological treatment. The effluents reaching the CETP through tankers from the member industries are collected in sumps. Thereafter, the combined effluent is given the physico-chemical treatment comprising equalisation, decanatation and screening. The supernatant effluent from decanatation unit is pumped into biological treatment system comprising anaerobic system (USAB) and aerobic Activated Sludge Process (ASP) with secondary clarifier. The effluents are then treated in aeration tanks then the effluents are sent into secondary settling tanks. Decanter separates the sludge from secondary settling tanks and the effluents are released into the Isukavagu stream (CPCB report, 1998).

Two samples of treated effluents released by CETP-Patancheru collected in rainy season are chemically analysed (Tables 5.2). They are highly polluted and far exceed the permissible limits of industrial effluents, disposable in inland surface waters (Photo 5.1). CETP has no secure hazardous sludge disposal site. The sludge collected in the process is being dumped in the same premises, which is also a potential source for water contamination (Photo 5.2).

Table 5.2 CETP-Patancheru effluents (August, 1997) (in ppm)

As almost all the industries are not having primary treatment plant facility the effluents are being directly sent to CETP. As this facility is not equipped to treat the effluents in two stages the CETP fails to treat the effluents.

Since its inception in 1994, CETP was receiving effluents from Patancheru and other places like Jeedimetla, Kazipally, Medchal, Kothur, Bollaram and Pashamylaram, etc., it is also receiving effluents from other Districts such as Rangareddy, Hyderabad, Medak, Nalgonda, Mahboobnagar of Andhra Pradesh and Bidar of Karnataka. Although CETP is not capable of treating local industrial effluents it had been receiving the effluents across Nakkavagu basin. In addition CETP of Patancheru received effluents from non-member industries too. Therefore the impact of Pollution on Nakkavagu basin area is the net result of industries located in a far wider area than Nakkavagu basin alone.

Nine different types of industries are sending their effluents to CETP of Patancheru. They are Bulk Drugs and Drug intermediates, Pulp paper and other cellulose base industries, Metal finishing, Resins and chemicals, Pesticides, Paints, Rubber, Edible oil refineries and Textile processing. Therefore it is impossible for CETP to treat the effluents to the prescribed standard from such diverse industries. The classification of member industries of CETP-Patancheru, type of effluents, location wise and contribution of effluents are given in Tables 5.3 and 5.4

5.3.1.2 CETP – Bollaram

CETP-Bollaram is having presently 25 member industries, of which 8 member industries are from outside Bollaram IDA. The present effluent load of CETP is 340 m3/day. Some of these industries are also members of Patancheru and / or Jeedimetla CETP’s too.

The wastewater brought in tankers is unloaded into the primary clarifier, by using pumps, at the rate of 10 to 15 m3/h. Suspended solids are removed here and collected in 3 sludge lagoons. Clear wastewater flows by gravity to the holding tank where nutrients, i.e. Phosphoric Acid, Urea and Di-Ammonium Phosphate, are added. The wastewater is equalised by gentle recirculation by a pump and after equalisation fed into a chamber for digester, which is recycled back to the digesters at the rate of 40 to 50 m3/h. Wastewater at the rate of 10 m3/h is sent to first stage aeration tank for biological treatment. From the first stage of aeration tank, wastewater flows by gravity to the intermediate clarifier where micro-organisms are separated in the form of sludge and the same is returned to the first stage aeration tank and clear liquid overflows to the second stage aeration for further biological degradation. Wastewater from second stage of aeration tank flows by gravity to the final clarifier is taken to maturation ponds from where it is pumped to the oxidation ponds-cum-solar evaporation ponds. All the solar evaporation ponds are connected in series. The effluents get evaporated and the sludge collected is disposed off (CPCB report, 1998). It also receives effluents without primary treatment at various industries.

Table 5.3 Classification of Member Industries of CETP-Patancheru

S.No.

Name of Products

Number of Industries

Source: CPCB Report, 1998.

Table 5.4 Location wise classification of Member industries of CETP-Patancheru and their effluent loads.

S.No.

Location of Industries

No. of Industries

Effluent load (kld)

Percentage contribution

Source: CPCB Report, 1998.

The effluents released from CETP’s do not have adequate water sources for dilution in Nakkavagu and Manjira River, except to some extent. The performance of CETP’s is given in Table 5.5. CETP’s are the industries by themselves are the major contributors of pollution.

Table 5.5 Performance of CETP’s
Parameter

Name

Source: CPCB report (1998).

5.4 SURFACE WATER

The surface waters in the basin include Nakkavagu and its tributaries, tanks, ponds and other small depressions. The volume of water in many of the surface water bodies varies with seasons. The surface water bodies, which receive the effluents from industries continuously, do not show much variation. Similarly because of industrial effluents entering into Nakkavagu the flow is maintained from Kardanoor onwards, even during the peak of summer Nakkavagu never goes dry. The flow of effluents in the Nakkavagu and its tributaries is shown in Figure 5.3.

The industrial effluents are usually released directly into streams and tanks. Pollutants also enter indirectly, as effluent stream (Figure 5.4), through atmosphere in the form of acid rains (Figure 5.5) and dust particles brought down by rain or air, leachets from solid waste dumps, surface runoffs during rains, leakage of effluents from solar evaporation ponds etc.

The surface water pollution is dangerous to the aquatic ecosystem. Nakkavagu waters are polluted beyond sustaining any kind of life. Some of the tanks are supporting meager life forms, and some are completely devoid of aerobic fauna. The comparison between unpolluted and polluted tanks is given in Figures 5.6 and 5.7.

All the industrial effluents ultimately end up in Nakkavagu; as a result it became the most polluted stream. Nakkavagu carries the effluents to a distance of 22 kms from Kardanoor onwards up to the merging point with Manjira River at Gaudcherla. Pamulavagu a major tributary of Nakkavagu adds its effluents into Nakkavagu at Bachuguda. The flow of effluents in Pamulavagu is erratic; sometimes there is no flow at all, because of a series of tanks located across its tributaries. The industrial effluents released in Bollaram and Khazipally industrial areas gets collected and stored in the tanks like, Khazipally tank, Gandigudem tank, Asanikunta, Krishnareddipet tank, etc. Krishnareddipet tank is the largest, and is the last of the series of tanks across the Pamulavagu tributary, unless the outlet of this tank is opened rarely any water flows into Pamulavagu.

5.4.1 Flowing Waters

The quality of streams varies and it is dependent on various factors. The total dissolved solids of the effluents of Nakkavagu as analysed over a period of time are presented in Figure 5.8. This gives a general picture of the pollution in Nakkavagu over a period of time. On the whole the trend shows gradual increase in pollution since 1979 with exception of observations in 1995 and 1998.

5.4.1.1 Surface waters Analytical Results

5.4.1.1.1 Summer Data of Streams (S-Data):

The data is pertaining to 11 samples of which 9 samples represent the Nakkavagu and 2 samples represent CETP and Pamulavagu. These samples are collected in summer 1997. Basic analysis data of the samples is presented in Table 5.6 and 5.7.

These samples are compared to the standards of inland surface waters (Table 5.8). The pH of Nakkavagu waters are slightly alkaline, CETP waters are slightly acidic and the Pamulavagu waters are more alkaline. TDS, COD, BOD and SO4- parameter concentrations are very high. Cl- is nearer to the limit of 1000ppm. F is high in 4 samples that are above 2ppm. Pb is high in all the samples with an exception of one sample of Nakkavagu. Hg is very high in all the samples. As and Se are high in all the samples with an exception of one sample from Nakkavagu. Cd, Zn, Cu, B, Mn, Cr, and Fe parameters are in permissible limits.

Almost all the parameters of CETP effluents are high. Therefore, the pollution in Nakkavagu is mainly because of the release of partially treated effluents into Nakkavagu.

The correlation matrix is given in Table 5.9. The following groups of elements are strongly and positively correlated: TDS is strongly related to TH, Cd, Hg and Cr, TH is related to Cd, Hg and Cr, COD is related to BOD and Cl-, BOD related to SO4- and Cl-, and the following pairs of parameters are also strongly related SO4- – Cl-, SO4- – Zn, F- – Fe, Zn – Se, Cu – As, and As – Se.

5.4.1.1.2 Rainy Season Data of Streams (R-Data):

R-Data is pertaining to 14 samples of surface waters collected from Isukavagu, Nakkavagu, Manjira River, Nizamsagar and Godavari River. These samples are collected during the rainy season (1997). The analytical and statistical data is presented in Tables 5.10 and 5.11. The variation of TDS, COD and BOD in surface waters at various locations from source up to Godavari River is given in Figures 5.9, 5.10 and 5.11. There is only slight reduction in the above parameters as the waters of Nakkavagu flow down stream. TDS and COD values in the effluents are reduced to the permissible limits, whereas BOD is still high just before the confluence point with Manjira River. The low values can be attributed to two factors, the innate capacity of self treatment of the stream as it moves over a distance (about 22kms) and the dilution factor, as it is the rainy season freshwaters from other sources reach Nakkavagu. Total suspended solids are also high in Nakkavagu and Pamulavagu streams. The waters of Manjira and Godavari Rivers are moderately alkaline, could be the result of agricultural pollution, the excess salts from agricultural fields (the residual fetilisers etc.) might have reached through water into the rivers. Sulphates and chlorides found in the effluents are contributed by the industries as directly or indirectly through CETP’s. But after the confluence with Manjira River they are diluted to the safer limits. Throughout Nakkavagu DO is very low and it is incapable of sustaining any kind of aerobic life, and also there are few chances of survival of anaerobic life because of the toxicity of Nakkavagu waters. The concentration of Zn, Cd, Pb, Cr and Cu in Isukavagu and Nakkavagu are presented in Table 5.12 among them except Pb rest are within the safe limits.

Correlation of the parameters indicates that the TDS, TS, TSS, Cl-, SO4-, COD and BOD all are positively related to each other’s (Table 5.13). The dissolved substances such as Cl-, SO4-, etc. are responsible for the high COD and BOD in the stream waters. The negative values for Dissolved oxygen (DO) against all the above parameters indicate that they are responsible for the fall in oxygen levels in the water.

5.4.1.1.3 Winter Data of Streams (W-Data):

The water of Pamulavagu is highly acidic, whereas the waters of Nakkavagu is alkaline. TDS, Electrical Conductivity (EC) and COD parameters are moderately high as compared to the waters of Manjira River (Table 5.14). Isukavagu is less polluted before the confluence of CETP effluents. DO in Manjira River is high before the confluence of Nakkavagu effluents, but after the addition of Nakkavagu effluents, its DO is reduced by half (Table 5.15). The Table 5.16 shows strong correlation between TDS, EC and COD.

5.4.1.2 Quality of Streams

The quality of the streams as observed during the year is discrete and cannot be linked to seasons. The drainage system existing and which is used for draining the effluents from industries are not perennial. The perennial nature of the streams especially Nakkavagu and Isukavagu are because of the continuous letting out of the industrial effluents and effluents from CETP-Patancheru. The production in industries is not seasonal and the effluents are continuously let into the streams. Some of the industries are releasing their effluents at intervals in such cases the samples collected would appear more polluted. During the rainy season because of dilution the pollution levels of Nakkavagu effluents should have been low but as compared to Summer Data (S-Data) and Winter Data (W-Data) over all the parameters are high at same locations. The industrialists had the knowledge of the presence of CPCB team, as a result the quality of effluents sent to CETP during that period had been good and the industrialists restricted themselves during that period by not letting the effluents into the streams, and also during that period the treatment facility was improved a lot. There are many reasons for variation of the quality of the effluents in the streams

5.4.2 Tanks

The quality of tanks depends upon the water entering them; these are artificial water bodies purposefully built across the streams in order to store water. They have become the traps or obstruction points to the free movement of effluents in the natural drains, which are released by industries into them. The residence time of pollutants in tanks is increasing, unless the effluents are released they remain trapped in them. But for the fear of damage to the crops, water is not being let out. They are presently appearing like ‘solar evaporation tanks’ where pollutants are getting accumulated in them.

5.4.2.1 Tanks Analytical Results

The degree of quality of some of the tanks in the region is presented in Tables 5.17 and 5.18, and Figure 5.12. Higher values of TDS, EC and COD indicate higher pollution levels in such tanks. Asanikunta, Khazipalli and Krishnareddipet tanks are the worst polluted tanks in the region. The Krishnareddipet tank is one of the highly polluted largest tanks in the region. Asanikunta and Khazipalli tanks are having highly acidic waters, which when released into streams will lead to secondary effects like mobilisation of heavy metals to less polluted areas.

The Table 5.19 shows strong correlation between TDS, EC and COD, and negative correlation between all the above parameters and DO. Therefore, the pollutants in the waters are responsible for the fall in DO in the tanks.

5.5 Groundwater

Groundwater potential depends upon a number of factors like climate, topography, soil characteristics, lithology, geological structures and flora of the area. Geologically Nakkavagu basin comprises mainly of Archaean granites, alluvium and partly basalts and laterites. Groundwater occurs in confined, semi-confined and unconfined conditions. The groundwater pollution depends on various factors such as depth of groundwater table, type of aquifer, permeability of the aquifer, characteristics of the soil, topography, geology of the area and concentration, dilution, dispersion and nature of pollutants.

The groundwater flow directions get established over a period of time, there won’t be much variation in the behaviour of groundwater in aquifers, unless there is a major crustal movement. As pollutants in groundwater follow the groundwater flow trends, the dispersion patterns remain the same although the concentrations of pollutants may vary.

Groundwater pollution takes place because of percolation of the pollutants into the saturated zone (Figures 5.13 and 5.14). As the flow of groundwater is controlled by many factors, the pollutants also disperse in those directions. The concentrates of pollutants reaching the groundwater do not remain the same as at the surface, some of the pollutants get absorbed and / or adsorbed. It also depends upon the solubility of the pollutants in water. At higher alkalinity the groundwater precipitates the heavy metals and other elements. Clay is almost impermeable so they may trap some of the pollutants in the ground.

5.5.1 Groundwater in Granites

Granites are plutonic crystalline igneous rocks. The nature and depth of weathering, joints, fractures and other structures mainly control the movement and occurrence of groundwater. The geological structures like joints, faults, lineaments etc., in the sub-surface granites, act like conduits for the movement of pollutants to far off distances.

The probable dispersion patterns of polluted water are shown in Figure 5.15.

The weathered product of granite is locally known as ‘morum’, water potential is high in such weathered zones. Wells are dug up to depths of 15 to 50 feet below ground level (bgl) in weathered zones. The bore-wells, which reach fractures or joints in granites, are good sources of water and even more better if the fractures or joints are interconnected (Figure 5.16). Bore well depths in the area, on an average in the range of 30 to 100 feet below ground level. Sometimes water flowing in a certain fracture follows considerable distance without any loss. Surprisingly pollutants dissolved in water also get transported too far of without getting diluted because of such fractures (Figure 5.15(d)). The pollutants also get trapped by dykes (Figure 5.17) and also between the open spaces between granites (Figure 5.18). For tracking dispersion pattern and rate of dilution of pollutants require proper understanding of geological structures. Basalts and laterites are mainly located to the south-western parts of Nakkavagu basin; the percentage of basalt and laterite coverage is very less. The groundwater potential of the three Mandals of Nakkavagu basin is given in Table 5.20.

Table 5.20 Groundwater Potential

S.No.

Name of Mandal

Potential (MCM)

Source: A.P. State groundwater department reports, 1988-1991 Hyderabad.

5.5.2 Groundwater Analytical Results

5.5.2.1 Summer Data (S-Data):

S-Data is pertaining to 6 samples of which three are borewell samples and three are of openwells. The basic analysis data and statistical parameters are presented in Tables 5.21 and 5.22 respectively.

The samples are compared to the inland surface water samples of EPA (Table 5.8). TDS is high in Pocharam borewell (BP1) and the open well (OB5). COD and BOD are also very high in all the borewells and openwells, with an exception of openwell (OB4). Hg is very high. As and Se are found high in the openwell samples OB5 and OB6.

The samples are compared to the drinking water standards (Table 5.23). Hg is about 10 to 300 times high in all the wells. Cl is found high in all the well samples and very high in openwell samples. As, Se, SO4 are found high in the openwells. Pb is high only in one openwell sample (OB4). TDS is found exceptionally high in all the openwell samples and in one borewell sample (BP1). Cd is found high in the Borewells (BP1 and BG2) and in the openwells (OB5 and OB6). Zn is high in all the samples except in one borewell sample (BB3). Cu is found high in BB3, OB4, OB5 and OB6. Mn is found high in BG2 and OB5 samples. Cr and Fe are within the safer limits.

The correlation matrix is given in Table 5.24. The following groups of elements are strongly and positively correlated: TDS is strongly related to TH, B and Cr, TH is strongly related to Cl-, Cu, As, Se and Cr, Cl- is related to Cu, As, Cr and Se, B is related to Cr and Fe, Cu is related to As and Se, As is related to Se and Cr, and the pairs of parameters are also strongly related COD – BOD, SO4- – As, F- – Se, Se – Cr.

5.5.2.2 G1 and G2- Data.

The groundwater data’s (G1 and G2) pertaining to the year 1991 is considered to understand the dispersion pattern of pollutants in the ground.

G1-Data

G1 data of 26 samples represent 14 villages adjacent to Nakkavagu, which are located in the polluted zone. Analysis of these samples is presented in Table 5.25 and statistical parameters are in Table 5.26. Except three wells, all other wells have alkaline waters. TDS and TH values are higher in many well samples, but they are well within permissible limits for inland surface waters of EPA (Table 5.8). SO4- and Cl- are within the limits. Some villages are showing high concentrations of F and Mn. Fe concentration is high in some cases.

The data is compared to the drinking water standards in Table 5.23. In nine samples TDS is very high which represent the seven villages Baithole, Lakdaram, Sultanpur, Inole, Chitkul, Arutla and Ismailkhanpet. Chloride is very high in majority of the villages. Fluoride is around 1.5ppm in majority of cases. Mn is exceptionally very high in Bachuguda, Pocharam, Lakdaram, Chidruppa, Eardanoor and Baithole villages, and high in Lakdaram, Sultanpur, Peddakanjerla and Ganapathiguda villages. Nitrate is found high in 12 cases representing 8 villages, Lakdaram, Chidruppa, Sultanpur, Inole, Chitkul, Arutla, Bollaram and Madharam.

The correlation coefficients are shown in Table 5.27 and the correlation matrix plot in Figure 5.19 reveals that there is strong positive correlation of TDS, Cl-, Ca, Fe, and also between the following pairs of parameters TDS – NO3-, Cl- – NO3-, Ca – NO3- and Fe – NO3-. This indicates that all the parameters are associated with TDS, which were released directly, or indirectly by the industries as effluents. The cluster analysis, based on the similarity measures, also indicates that a strong grouping of all the parameters (Figure 5.20). The linkage of these parameters shows that there is a strong relation of TDS with rest of the parameters. The extent of groundwater pollution is also shown diagrammatically in Figure 5.21. The distances indicate that the degree of pollution is exceeding in one case at Peddakanjerla.

The analytical data is subjected to R-mode factor analysis. A three-factor model is chosen for interpretation. The factor loadings plot (Figure 5.22) indicate the following groups of parameters (TDS, Cl-, Ca, and Fe), (TH and Alkalinity (ALK)), and (Mn and F-). NO3- can be associated with first group as it is located close to it, SO4- and COD are slightly independent, but they are close to the first two groups. Overall, all the above parameters are the constituents in the industrial effluents. pH and Mg are independent. Probably Mg is contributed by the natural hardness in the groundwaters as magnesium carbonate, in addition to the contamination from industrial effluents. The characteristic Mn and F association and in confirmation with the samples, which are contributed from the industrial pollution and also the natural contamination from deep fractures, that entered into the groundwater.

G2-Data

G2-Data is pertaining to 41 samples representing 13 villages adjacent to Nakkavagu and its tributaries, which are located in the highly polluted zone. Basic analytical and statistical data of the groundwater samples are presented in Table 5.28 and 5.29 respectively.

When compared to the inland surface waters (Table 5.8), the TDS values are exceeding in 6 cases that is 2100. Carbonate Hardness (CH), CaCO3, and EC are also high in samples with high TDS.

The data is compared to the drinking water standards in Table 5.23. Nitrate is well with in the limit, exceptionally high in two samples of Peddakanjerla. Nitrite is high in as many as 11 samples representing the following villages, Eardanoor Tanda, Arutla, Chidruppa, Lakdaram, Ganapathiguda, Kardanoor, Inole and Peddakanjerla. TDS is also very high in about 11 samples of 7 villages Baithole Tanda, Baithole, Arutla, Lakdaram, Kardanoor, Ganapathiguda and Peddakanjerla. In majority of the cases Cl- is very high, whereas F is very high in Eardanoor and Inole villages.

Clustering of the associated parameters are shown in Table 5.30 and Figure 5.23. There is very strong correlation between TDS, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Carbonate hardness (CH), Cl- and Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3). Therefore carbonates and chlorides are the major constituents of TDS released by industries. The dendrogram shows the association of parameters (Figure 5.24).

Clustering of villages with similar groundwater pollution is shown in Figure 5.25. In the dendrogram, the degree of pollution among the samples are showing less variation except for the last four cases, showing very high variation from rest of the samples. The four samples are from Ganapathiguda and Arutla and two samples are from Peddakanjerla.

In the Figure 5.26 generated after R-mode factor analysis the cluster of parameters are grouped as (EC, TDS, CH, NO3-), (Cl-, TH, CaCO3), these parameters are mainly the constituents of the industrial effluents. pH, F and NO2- are independent. Fluoride can be attributed as mainly a geological contaminant from deep fractures. Nitrite could be a factor contributed from agricultural sources i.e. use of nitrogen fertilisers.

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The socio-economic and cultural environment studies are important in assessing the impacts of developmental activities on human beings. Environmental pollution by the industries also influences directly or indirectly the socio-economic environment.

The developmental activities in a region are meaningless unless such activities help in the socio-economic development of the region. The creation of employment opportunities for the local people is the direct impact. The changes in population composition of the region, multiplier benefits, education and health status of the local people, changes in land-use pattern (agricultural and industrial) and impacts on the cultural properties of the area are the indirect impacts. This chapter aims to evaluate pros and cons of the direct and indirect impacts of the industries located mainly in Patancheru and other Mandals (R.C.Puram, Jinnaram and Sangareddy) covered in Nakkavagu basin.

4.2 POPULATION

The population growth and urbanisation of the area can be attributed to the industrialisation, infrastructure development and proximity to Hyderabad (Mega-city). Industrialisation led to the growth of Patancheru and Ramachandrapuram as urban towns. National Highway No.9 (NH-9) that passes through Patancheru connects Hyderabad and Pune and also Secunderabad – Wadi railway line passes through the south-eastern parts of Patancheru. With accessibility of transportation facilities, Hyderabad is expanding in the north-west axis along NH-9 too. Percentage of rural and urban population and density of persons per square kilometer are shown in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 respectively. The composition of the population of urban areas, Mandals and Medak District is shown in Tables 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3.

Table 4.1 Urban area Population:
Place

Area (sq. km.)

Population

Density (pp.sq.km)

(Source: Population Census, 1991, in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

Table 4.2 Population of Patancheru and Sangareddy – 1981 and 1991 census

Place

Status

Population

% of (+) increase.

(Source: Population Census, 1991, in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

In Ramachandrapuram (R.C.Puram) the density of population is very high, this is due to its proximity to Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL)-a public sector company, the availability of all kinds of services and being an area less polluted, developed as a major town. BHEL Township built for its employees is well planned, having wide roads, parks and open spaces, which explains the low density. Patancheru in spite of being a major industrial area is less developed in comparison to Ramachandrapuram mainly because of obnoxious smell and water pollution. Overall Patancheru had shown very significant growth rate of population between 1981 to 1991, because of the growth and establishment of a number of industries during that period, in and around Patancheru. Sangareddy being administrative headquarter for Medak District is also shows higher growth rate of population may be because of immigrations.

Table 4.3 Area, No. Of Villages, Towns, Males and Females and total population

Name of the Mandal

Area in sq.kms.

Total inhabited villages

No. of towns

Males

Females

Population (persons)

(Source: Population Census 1991, in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

From Table 4.3 it is evident that Ramachandrapuram Mandal is small in area having few villages. Patancheru, Jinnaram and Sangareddy Mandals are comparable in size and have a number of villages in them. Jinnaram Mandal is not having any town, while rest of the Mandals are having one town each. Females per 1000 males are abnormally low for Patancheru and less in other three Mandals too, in comparison with the District ratio (Figure 4.3). In industrial areas working bachelors are usually found in large numbers, as industrialisation attracts many single male members that resulted in low sex ratio.

4.3 EDUCATION

The development of a backward region by the establishment of industries becomes meaningless unless local people can seize the opportunities. In the absence of educated local people the most sought after skilled and administrative posts are taken over by neo-immigrants. Therefore the local people will be limited to unskilled labour. Education plays an important role in the socio-economic development of the region.

Literacy and education generates awareness and awakening among people about the positive and negative impacts of industrial development. It helps people in judging the choice and location of industries and also become aware of the nature of pollution they would generate and take precautionary measures against environmental hazards. From Figure 4.4 and Table 4.4 it is evident that except in Ramachandrapuram and Sangareddy Mandals, in rest of the Mandals there is no great improvement in percentage of literates against Medak District literacy percentage.

Table 4.4 Literacy

Name of the Mandal

No. of literates (%age)

(Source: Population Census 1991 in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

Primary schools are good in numbers; upper primary and secondary schools can be improved for the Patancheru and Jinnaram Mandals. On an average one school is existing for a group of about 4 to 5 villages (Table 4.5). The students spend more time and energy in reaching the school. As the total population is very high in Sangareddy and Ramachandrapuram Mandals, they too require more number of upper primary and secondary schools. The number of Junior colleges and Degree colleges can also be improved. Industrial Training Institutes which train people for the skilled labour requirement in industries are to be increased, at present only one such institute is existing (Table 4.6).

Table 4.5 Number of Primary, Upper primary &Secondary primary schools-Enrollment (1993-94)

Primary school

Upper primary school

Secondary primary school

(Source: Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

Table 4.6 Colleges / institutes

Patancheru

-One Government Junior college

-One Industrial training institute

(Source: Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

4.4 HEALTH

It is the duty of a welfare state to look after the health of its people, for that reason medical facilities are provided by Government (Table 4.7). The medical facilities provided by Government are inadequate. In this kind of polluted environment people are prone to a variety of diseases and hence require timely and proper attention from the Government in providing medical facilities. A number of practicing private doctors are doing well, costing the pockets of innocent victims of pollution. A person cleaning with the polluted waters of Pamulavagu near Bachuguda is shown in Photo 4.1.

Table 4.7 Medical facilities, 1993-94

Patancheru

R.C.Puram

Jinnaram

Sangareddy

Medak dist.

(Source: Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

The veterinary services available for domestic animals are given in Table 4.8. Several cattle and sheep suffered from deterioration of health and some died instantly after consuming the polluted water from streams and tanks. During summers when there are very few water bodies left with uncontaminated water, the thirsty animals in the fields have no other way, except to drink these polluted waters (Photo 4.2). During rainy season leachets from solid waste dumps and polluted water from overflowing effluent lagoons, enter into the fresh rainwater collected in pools, the unsuspecting animals, which blindly consume these polluted waters, get affected. Incidents of livestock accidentally becoming victims to polluted waters are many. In such an environment adequate drinking water facilities should be provided at various points for the convenience of animals. In this kind of hostile environment, the medical facilities provided for animals are inadequate.

Table 4.8 Veterinary services (1993-94).

Vet. Hospitals & dispensaries

(LSU and RLUS are the lower version of Vet. Hosp’s)

Vet. Doctors

Livestock inspectors

(Source: Joint director, Animal Husbandry Medak dist, in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

4.5 LAND-USE

Land-use trends in Nakkavagu basin are shown in Figure 4.5 and in Table 4.9. Agriculture dominates the land-use pattern as seen in Patancheru, Ramachandrapuram and Sangareddy Mandals.
Percentage of forest area is considerable only in Jinnaram Mandal. There is no forest area in Patancheru, Ramachandrapuram and Sangareddy Mandals. Barren and uncultivable land is less in Sangareddy and Ramachandrapuram Mandals whereas District (7%) average is comparable for Patancheru Mandal (8%) and slightly high for Jinnaram (13%) Mandal. Land put to non-agricultural use is high in Ramachandrapuram (17%), Sangareddy (13%) and Patancheru (10%) in comparison to Jinnaram Mandal and the Medak District at 7%. The high percentage of land put to non-agricultural uses is the result of industrialisation and associated urbanisation, and in addition Sangareddy being administrative capital of Medak District it has the highest percentage. Sangareddy and Jinnaram Mandals have no permanent pastures or grazing lands, Patancheru (3%), Jinnaram (5%) and for Medak District (5%). Miscellaneous tree groves are significant only for Patancheru Mandal, Jinnaram and Medak District average stand at 1%. Cultural wastelands are less in all the Mandals in comparison to District at 3%. Other fallow lands are highest for Patancheru (20%), and high in Jinnaram (13%), Sangareddy (12%) and Ramachandrapuram (12%) Mandals, in comparison to the District (8%). Current fallow lands are very high in Ramachandrapuram (57%); Patancheru (38%) and Sangareddy (35%) in comparison to Jinnaram (19%) and Medak District average (18%). The total fallow (current fallow + other fallow) lands are high in Ramachandrapuram (69%), Patancheru (58%), Sangareddy (47%) and Jinnaram (32%) in comparison to Medak District (26%). Net sown area is less then the District (42%), at Sangareddy (38%), Jinnaram (20%), Patancheru (18%) and Ramachandrapuram (12%). The high percentage of fallow lands and less percentage of net sown area in Patancheru, Sangareddy, Jinnaram and Ramachandrapuram Mandals is the net result of the pollution of soil, water and air by the industries.

Table 4.9 Land utilisation particulars for the year 1993-94 (in Hectares)

Patancheru

R.C.Puram

Jinnaram

Sangareddy

Medak dist.

(Source: Chief planning office, Medak District, in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

4.6 AGRICULTURE

During 1940’s Patancheru was identified as a model rural development centre, which is aided by grants from the rural welfare trust fund to cover rural development including agriculture, horticulture and hygiene (Barass, 1950). In spite of industrialisation a major percentage of people are engaged in rural activities – about 60% and above in all the Mandals, except in Ramachandrapuram Mandal. However there is a shift in number of people engaged in rural activities to other activities, in all the four Mandals in comparison to the District average (Figure 4.6).

The principle crops under cultivation are given in Table 4.10. Jowar is the principal dry-land crop and Paddy is the principal wet-land crop. Various pulses and oil seeds are grown as rain-fed crops. Area under cotton cultivation is increasing in the recent years only. The mechanisation of agriculture is expanding rapidly, as the labour costs have increased phenomenally because of industries. The ratio of the number of villages and the total number of tractors for each Mandal is nearly one for Patancheru, two each for Ramachandrapuram and Jinnaram Mandals. Sangareddy Mandal shows less mechanisation in comparison to other Mandals.

Particulars of agricultural land holdings are given in Figure 4.7 and Table 4.11. Marginal farmers are greater than 50% in all the Mandals, marginal and small farmers together constitute greater then 75% in all the Mandals. On the whole the categories of farmers are comparable to the District average percentage. Marginal farmers having up to 2.46 acres of land, in case of pollution of their lands, have no other way but to sell off at through-away prices or those lands are left fallow. This section of population is more vulnerable to environmental changes like droughts, floods and even environmental pollution, which leads to out-migrations or will be reduced to agricultural labourers. The disguised unemployment is another major problem, which is the result of small land holdings. The use of agricultural machinery and implements are given in Table 4.12.

Table 4.10 Area under principle crops 1993-94 (Area in Acres)

Crops

Patancheru

R.C.Puram

Jinnaram

Sangareddy

Medak dist.

(Source: Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

Table 4.11 Particulars of Agricultural Census (1990-91).

Holdings

Total area in acres

(Source: Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

Table 4.12 Agricultural machinery and implements

Tractors

Sprayers

Ploughs

Oil engines

Electric motors

(Source: Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).
Percentages of cultivated and fallow land of the highly polluted Pocharam and Bachuguda villages for the periods 1984-85 to 1995-96 is presented in Figure 4.8. Pollution of water, soil and air may be the main cause of fallow lands; at least on the whole about 20% of the lands are being left fallow in both the villages.

Traditionally there had been two types of irrigation practices in the region, lift irrigation from wells and streams, and irrigation by gravity from tanks. The lifts worked with bullocks called mhotas are suitable for irrigating up to 8 acres. Mhotas were in practice till 1980’s. The present practice of lift irrigation is by electric motor pumps. The availability of water from a number of tanks spread in the region can also be attributed to the prosperity of agriculture (Table 4.13). Tanks are adequate in numbers but now a number of tanks are of little use except as storage ponds for industrial effluents. As these tanks are connected in series the pollutants entering a tank at higher reaches pollutes all other tanks down stream. Presently many farmers shifted to dry-land farming as the water sources are polluted (Photo 4.3). The pollution of wells and tanks crippled all those farmers irrigating crops under them.

Table 4.13 Minor irrigation sources

No. of Tanks

Total Ayacut (Acres)

(Source: Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

4.7 EMPLOYMENT

Development of industries in other then the main urban centres is the policy of decentralisation, so that socio-economic development takes place in other regions too. Industries generate direct and indirect job opportunities.

In industrial areas due to payment of higher wages, it has impact on the agricultural sector. Mechanisation of agriculture took place especially in Patancheru and Ramachandrapuram Mandals, because of shifting of agricultural labour to industrial sector where they are paid high. The involvement of a considerable percentage of people engaged in other then rural activities, in comparison to the distribution of working population in Medak District, is the direct indication of people absorbed in industries and allied sectors.
Real development of a region takes place only if there is any social and economic development of the local people. As the industrial area is close to the major urban center Hyderabad, industrialisation gave way for shuttling workers from the city. On account of pollution, the area is not preferred for living, especially in Patancheru Mandal. The low literacy rate provides fewer opportunities for the people seeking suitable jobs that lead to immigrations from elsewhere. The tertiary sector is also less developed as the money is being spent in the main city. There are no residential colonies existing in the region because of pollution which indicates majority of the industrial workers are commuting from other places especially form Hyderabad and its outskirts where they have better civic amenities and other services too. As a result the local people are loosing indirect employment opportunities, therefore the multiplier effect is very weak.
The actual backwardness of the District is in the interior and western parts of the District. By selecting this peripheral area close to Hyderabad, the industrial development is contributing more for the economic development of Hyderabad rather then in reducing the backwardness of Medak District.

4.8 POPULATION STRUCTURE OF MOST POLLUTED VILLAGES

The following are the villages, which are located close to the industrial areas and the polluted streams, with polluted groundwater, surface water, soil and air pollution: Ismailkhanpet, Arutla, Chidruppa, Bythole, Edthanoor, Indrakaran, Lakdaram, Chinna Kanjerla, Pedda Kanjerla, Sultanpur, Krishnareddipet, Indresham, Inole, Bachuguda, Chitkul, Isnapur, Kardanoor, Mutangi, Pocharam, Khazipalli and Bollaram. These are the most polluted villages, which are frequently mentioned in the press and other media. The workers engaged in rural and urban activities, the percentage of literates and illiterates, and population below and above 6 years of age of the above villages is presented in Figure 4.9 (a) and 4.9 (b).

As the percentage of rural population (about 80 percent) is higher in a number of villages in spite of their close proximity to the Industrial areas, it implies that the industrialisation did not resulted in much creation of job benefits to them. As the literacy rate is also very low (about 20 percent) in many of the villages, this is another negative factor for not getting job opportunities. Nearly 20 percent of the population in these villages is well below 6 years of age, as this age group is sensitive to pollution, it is hazardous for their growth and development.

4.9 CULTURAL PROPERTIES

The cultural history of Medak District commences from prehistoric time that is Paleolithic age. At Kondapur near Patancheru, shreds of pottery, polished stone artifacts and slag of iron belonging to the Neolithic and megalithic cultures were collected. These and other discoveries in the area reveal that there existed a highly developed cultural people in the prehistoric times. The innumerable burials (Cairns and stone circles) near Muttangi, Asnathpur and Khazipalli near Patancheru and other parts of the District, belonging to Megalithic culture were also discovered. About 30 kilometers to the west of Patancheru at Kondapur archaeological excavations indicate the existence of a buried city of vast dimensions dating back to Mauryan and Satavahanas period. Early History of Medak District dates back to Pre-Asokan times (Table 4.14).

Table: 4.14 Early History of Medak District.

PERIOD

DYNASTY

IMPORTANT RULERS

Patancheru is the modern name, which was also called as Pottalacheruvu or Potlakire in the past. Patancheru as capital of Chalukyans of Kalyani for some time, played an important role in the political and religious history of the area. The early rulers of the dynasty encouraged Jainism until Somesvara built the Kalyana. Brahma Siva a staunch follower of Jaina law who also authored two Kannada works belonged to Potalakire. Potalakire once flourished as an important Jaina center. Parasvanatha (23rd Trithankara) is worshiped in Manikya Prabhumandir found here. Innumerable Jina panels are excavated in addition to other antiquities by the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Andhra Pradesh.

During the Medieval period Patancheru was under the rule of Kakatiyas, Bhamanis, Qutub Shahis and Barid Shahis respectively. Medieval Hindu temples are found scattered in the villages around Patancheru. The Gods and Goddesses of these temples are identified as, Yoga Narasimha, Siva in linga form, Bhairava, Ganesa, Devi, Gandharvas, Virakal, Anjaneya, Naga, Nagini, etc. In the Modern period it was under the rule of Mughals and Asaf Jahis respectively. In 1930 the first Andhra conference was held at Jogipet in this District. The whole of Nizam’s dominion remained out side the main stream of Indian national movement. Medak District merged with the Indian union only on 17th of September 1948 at the time of the police action over Nizam.

The rich cultural heritage of the past was alone possible by the prosperity of agriculture and allied trade. Irrigation had been the chief need in developing agriculture. The prosperity and development of the state depended on revenue collection, which was mainly dependent on the pros and cons of agricultural development.

Pre-historic and historical evidences prove that this place is one of the continuously settled places on par with other areas of the country. The resources which sustained indigenous populations over more than 2000 years is a record by itself. Availability of water and fertile soil were the basic requirements for supporting earliest civilisations and advanced through sustained agricultural activity. Through ages indigenous people protected and managed the precious water to their advantage, for sustainable livelihood.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The present study is to characterise the environmental components like flora and fauna, to assess the biological diversity of the region.  Flora and fauna can be used for biological surveillance in assessing the environmental status (Figure 3.1).  The ecological interpretation of Nakkavagu basin is based on reconnaissance survey and from secondary sources of information.

Water is the basic and essential resource for the survival of flora and fauna.  The flora being the primary producer influences the fauna of the region.  The characteristic flora existing in a region depends up on the existing conditions such as intensity of sunlight, type of soil, quality of air, including the quality and quantity of water available, etc.  Several scientists in the past have studied the ecological aspects and pollution (Hynes (1960), Munnawar (1970), Bharati (1973), Senayya (1979), Cynthia (1980), Khanum (1980), Ambasht (1981), Clapham (1981), Khan (1985), Kim (1990), Chapman (1992), Beeby (1993)). In Nakkavagu basin the Industrialisation led to pollution of surface and groundwater resources, soil, air, etc., this will have impact on the biodiversity of the region.

Nakkavagu basin area supports diverse fauna because of the presence of water bodies in and around the basin.  The Manjira wildlife sanctuary located to the north-west of Nakkavagu basin about 30kms from Patancheru lies in between the Manjira and Singoor barrages.  This Sanctuary is the abode for a number of resident and migratory birds in addition to being the home for the Marsh crocodile.  On the whole the rivers, streams, reservoirs, tanks, ponds, and lakes present in this part of Medak District, supporting diverse aquatic flora and fauna, is the sensitive region to be protected.

3.2 FLORA

The flora in this region is tropical deciduous, as the monsoons are very much short lived in this District.  The shedding of leaves starts around January and the trees remain leafless till June.  The flora that is found in Nakkavagu basin is presented in (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1    Indigenous plant species of Nakkavagu basin.
Botanical Name    Common Name    Local Name    Uses
1.        Acacia arabica    Babul    Tumma    Timber, fodder, fuel-wood, fencing,
2.        Acacia auriculoformis        Nakka Thoka    Timber, fuel-wood
3.        Acacia concinna        Shikakai    Fencing, shampoo
4.        Acacia ferrugen        Tella Thumma    Timber, fuel-wood, fodder
5.        Acacia instia        Seema Korinda    Fencing,
6.        Acacia mangium        Budidaaku Chettu    Fuel-wood
7.        Acassia catechu        Tella Thumma    Timber, fuel-wood, fodder
8.        Achras zapota    Sapota    Sapota    Fruit
9.        Adathoda vasica        Addasaram    Fencing, medicinal, biopesticide
10.        Adenanthera pavonina        Erra Goli    Timber, fuel-wood, fodder
11.        Aegle marmelos    Bale    Maredu    Fruit, dye, cultural
12.        Agave angustifolia    Agave    Sagaramatta    Fencing, fiber
13.        Alebizzia lebback        Dirishanam    Fodder, timber, fuel-wood
14.        Amaranthus spinosus    Amaranthus    Totakura    Greens
15.        Annona squamosa    Custard Apple    Seetahapal    Fruit, medicinal, biopesticide.
16.        Artocarpus heterophyllus    Jack Fruit    Panasa    Fruit, timber
17.        Azadirachta indica    Neem    Vepa    Timber, fuel-wood, fodder, oil, medicinal, biopesticide
18.        Bambusa arundinacea    Bamboo    Veduru    Timber, basket making
19.        Bauhinia purpurea        Kanchanam    Timber, fodder, fuel-wood
20.        Bauhinia racemosa        Are    Fuel-wood, timber, fodder
21.        Bixa orellana        Annota    Dye
22.        Buchannia lanzan    Chiranj    Morri    Fruit, fodder, fuel-wood
23.        Butea monosperma    Flame of Forest    Modugu    Dye, fuel-wood, leaf plate, green manure, medicinal
Botanical Name    Common Name    Local Name    Uses
24.        Caesalpinia crista        Gachhakaya    Fencing, medicinal
25.        Calotropis gigantia        Jilledu    Medicinal, fodder, green manure, biopesticide
26.        Canavalia enciformis    Swork Bean    Chammakaya    Vegetable, green cover, fodder
27.        Carica papaya        Papaya    Fruit, medicinal
28.        Cassia auriculata        Nela Tangedu    Fuel-wood, medicinal, manure
29.        Cassia fistula        Rela    Fuel-wood, fodder, timber
30.        Cassia siamea        Adavi Tangedu    Green Manure, medicinal, fuel-wood, timber
31.        Cassia spectabilis        Pachha Tangedu    Fuel-wood, green manure, medicinal, timber
32.        Centrocema pubescens        Katte teega    Fodder, green cover
33.        Cibea pentandra        Adavi Patthi    Cotton, medicinal, fodder
34.        Citrus auruntium    Citrus    Nimma    Fruit, medicinal, biopesticide.
35.        Clerodendron phlomidis        Takkali    Medicinal
36.        Clitoria ternatea    Blue Bell    Shanku pushpam    Fodder, green cover
37.        Coleus aromaticus        Vaamaku    Medicinal, biopesticide,
38.        Coriandrum sativum    Coriandar    Daniyalu    Greens, biopesticide
39.        Crotalaria juncea    Sun Hemp    Janumu    Fiber, green manure, medicine
40.        Cucurbita moschata    Pumpkin    Gummadi    Vegetables
41.        Diospyros chloroxylon        Illinta    Fencing, fodder, timber, fuel-wood, fruit
42.        Dodonaea viscosa        Pulaili    Fuel-wood, fencing, fodder
43.        Dolichos biflorus    Horsegram    Uluvalu    Fodder, green manure, Medicinal
44.        Dolichos lab-lab    Bean    Kuranupa    Vegetables, green cover
45.        Emblica officinalis    Gooseberry    Usiri    Fruit, medicinal
46.        Erithrina indica        Tellarjam    Fodder, fuel-wood
47.        Euphorbia antiquorum        Pudaka Jemadi    Fencing, medicinal
48.        Feronia elephantum    Wood apple    Veluga    Fruit, fuel-wood, fodder.
49.        Ficus bengalensis    Bhad    Marri    Fuel-wood, medicinal
50.        Ficus glomerata    Fig    Medi    Fodder, fuel-wood, timber
51.        Ficus religiosa
Peepul    Ragi    Fruit, fuel-wood, cultural
Botanical Name    Common Name    Local Name    Uses
52.        Gardinia gummifera        Chitimiti    Fruit, fencing, fodder, fuel-wood
53.        Gossypium herbaceum        Nalla Patti    Cotton, Medicinal
54.        Grewia tilliaefolia        Palsa    Fruit
55.        Guizoltia abyasinica    Niger    Gaddinuvulu    Oil, Green manure, medicinal, fodder
56.        Gymnosporia montana        Danta    Fencing, fuel-wood
57.        Hardwickia binnata        Yepi    Timber, fuel-wood, fodder,
58.        Hibiscus cannabinus        Punti    Fiber, fodder
59.        Ipomoea fistulosa         Tuti poraka    Fencing, weaving
60.        Jeatropha curacas        Adavi amudam    Oil, medicinal, biopesticide
61.        Lagenaria leucantha    Bottle Gourd    Sorakaya    Vegetable
62.        lagerstroemia parviflora         Chennagi    Food, medicinal, fodder
63.        Lantana camera    Lantana    Kakipandu    Fencing, fruit, thatch
64.        Luffa acutangula    Ridge Gourd    Beera    Vegetable
65.        Madhuka indica    Mohua    Ippa    Fuel-wood, fodder, medicinal, timber, food
66.        Mangifera indica    Mango    Mamidi    Fruit, timber, fuel-wood.
67.        Melia azadirachta    Persian Lilac    Turka Vepa    Timber fodder
68.        Momordica charantia    Bitter Gourd    Kaakara    Vegetable, medicinal
69.        Morinda tomentosa        Maddi    Timber, fodder, medicinal, fuel-wood
70.        Morus alba    Mulberry    Bontha Pandlu    Fruit, fodder, fuel-wood
71.        Mucuna cochinchinensis    Velvet bean    Doolkaya    Fodder, green cover
72.        Murraya koenigi    Curry leaf    Karivepaku    Medicinal, biopesticide
73.        Occimum basilicum    Sanctum    Tulisi    Medicinal, biopesticide, cultural
74.        Ougeinia oojeinensis        Tella Motuku    Firewood, timber
75.        Parkiasonia aculeata        Cheema tumma    Fencing, fuel-wood
76.        Passiflora edulis    Passion fruit    Pacha Pundu    Fruit, medicinal,
77.        Peltophoram pterocarpum        Pachha Pulu    Fuel-wood, timber
78.        Phaseolus trilobus        Pilli Pesara    Fodder, green manure, medicinal
79.        Phoenix sylvestris    Palm    Eetha    Fruit, basket making, fencing
80.        Pithecellobium dulce    Inga dulce    Seema Chinta    Fruit, timber, fodder,
81.        Plantago ovata    Mehandi    Gorinta    Fencing, dye
Botanical Name    Common Name    Local Name    Uses
82.        Pongamia pinnata    Kharanj    Kanuga    Green manure, medicinal, fuel-wood, oil, timber.
83.        Premna integrifolia        Takkali    Fodder, fencing, medicinal, timber, biopesticide
84.        Prosopis cineraria
Jambi chettu    Timber, fodder, cultural
85.        Psidium gujava    Guava    Jama    Fruit, furniture, medicinal
86.        Punica granatum    Pomegranate    Danimma    Fruit, medicinal
87.        Ricinus communis    Castor    Amudam    Oil, fodder, timber
88.        Rumex pesicarius        Chukkakura    Greens
89.        Samaea saman    Rain tree    Nidra ganneru    Fuel-wood, timber, fodder
90.        Sapindus mukorossi    Soapnut    Kunkudu    Shampoo, fuel-wood
91.        Sasbania aculeata        Tagarancha    Green manure, medicinal, green cover
92.        Sesbania grandiflora        Avisha    Food, fuel-wood, fodder,
93.        Sesbania species        Jiluga    Fodder, green manure, medicinal
94.        Sesbania species        Barputam    Fodder, green cover, green
95.        Spinacea oleracea    Palak    Palak    Greens
96.        Strychnos nux-vomica        Vishamushti    Timber, medicinal, fuel-wood
97.        Strychnos potatorum        Chilla    Fuel-wood, timber, fodder
98.        Stylosanthes guyanensis    Stylo        Fodder, green cover, green manure, medicinal
99.        Syzyphus cumini    Kala Jamun    Allaneradu    Timber, fodder, medicinal, fruit
100.        Tagetes erecta    Marigold    Banthi    Medicinal, biopesticide, flower
101.        Tamarindus indica    Tamarind    Chinta    Fruit, fuel-wood, fodder
102.        Tectona grandis    Teak    Teak    Timber, fodder,
103.        Tephrosia purpurea        Vempali    Green manure, dye
104.        Terminalia alata        Tanni    Timber, medicinal, fuel-wood.
105.        Terminalia catappa    Indian Almond    Baadam    Fruit
106.        Terminalia chebula    Hulda    Karka    Medicinal, fuel-wood
107.        Thevetia peruviana        Ganneru    Fencing,
108.        Trigonella foenum graecum    Fenugreek    Menti    Greens
109.        Vigna sinensis    Cow Pea    Alasandalu    Fodder, green cover
Botanical Name    Common Name    Local Name    Uses
110.        Vitex negundo        Vaili    Fencing, medicinal, fuel-wood, biopesticide
111.        Vitis setosa        Pulla bachhali    Greens,
112.        Ziziphus mauritiana    Ber    Reni    Fruit, fencing, timber, fodder, medicinal
113.        Ziziphus oenoplia    Sparrow Berry    Pariki    Fruit, fencing, fodder

These lists of species identified are indigenous to this region, many of them were once found abundantly in these parts of Nakkavagu basin.  These species listed are within the knowledge of older generation, their opinion is considered before finalising the list.  The diverse species identified meet the various requirements of local people and their domestic animals.  They also play an important role in the local ecosystem of the area.  Many tree species are reduced to few numbers and are limited to few scattered pockets.  As per the villagers, with the industrial development many species are not found any more or are seen in reduced numbers.  As these species are indigenous some of these listed species can be selected for afforestation and greening of the industrial areas for lessening the impacts of pollution.

Agro-forestry is still a practice in many villages; the fields are dotted with species like Mangifera indica, Tamarindus indica, Psidium guajava, Accacia arabica, etc.

Prosopis juliflora and Parthenium hysterophorus are the invading species, which are recent introductions. Prosopis juliflora growing luxuriantly in saline and polluted soils, all along the polluted streams of Nakkavagu basin (Photo 3.1 and 3.2). Parthenium hysterophorus is the major weed found everywhere.

3.3 FAUNA

Two of the major streams in Nakkavagu basin are named after a mammal and reptile, ‘Nakka’ means fox, ‘Pamula’ means ‘of snakes’ and ‘vagu’ means stream in Telugu.  ‘Nakkavagu’ – ‘fox-stream’ as per the villagers this stream was habitat for foxes in the past.  Similarly ‘Pamulavagu’ – ‘Stream of snakes’ was the natural habitat for snakes.  Whenever Pamulavagu was is in spate, large numbers of snakes were seen everywhere, even in the nearby villages.  The irrigation facilities led to growing crops like paddy, which attracts pests like rats; they in turn could have attracted snakes in large numbers, which helped in control of rats.

In the past the forests in the District were active with wild life.  The fox, wolf and Jackal are not seen presently in Nakkavagu basin, as aquatic habitat and forest areas are devastated by industrial pollution in Nakkavagu basin.  As per the local people’s observation the species like birds, reptiles, amphibians, pisces, insects and mammals etc.  are drastically reduced or migrated elsewhere.  The sparrows are seen less in numbers nowadays and their numbers have drastically reduced with increasing pollution.  There is complete absence of aquatic life in the Nakkavagu.  The tanks in the past might have attracted a large number and variety of migratory birds from higher latitudes in winter.  Birds are an integral part of the agricultural system.  Birds play an important role in the control of pests by helping the farmers from crop losses and also their excreta nourishes the fields with natural fertiliser.  The fauna seen in parts of Nakkavagu basin and in the adjacent Manjira wildlife sanctuary is presented in (Table 3.2 (a) & (b)).

Table 3.2 (a)
FISHES                 REPTILES
-    Catla
-    Rohu
-    Murrel
-    Eel
-    Paten
-    Kaarugu
-    Chidwa    -    Monitor Lizard
-    Fresh water turtles
-    Cobra
-    Marsh Crocodiles (exclusively found in Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary)

Table 3.2 (b)    Birds observed in parts of Nakkavagu basin and in the Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary.
Important Resident Birds

-    Grey Herons
-    Night Herons
-    Pond Herons
-    Purple Herons
-    Purple Moor Hen
-    Little Egrets
-    Cattle Egrets
-    Cormorants
-    Coots
-    King Fishers
-    Green bee eater
-    Red watlled lapwing
-    Shriek
-    Hoopoe
-    Doves
-    Sparrows    Important Migratory Birds

-    Painted Storks
-    Open billed Storks
-    Spoon bills
-    Comb ducks
-    Cotton teals
-    Whistling teals
-    Red crested pochards
-    Common pochards
-    Brahminy ducks
-    Grey Pelicans
-    Brown headed Gulls
-    Barheaded geese
-    Osprey
-    Marsh Harrier
-    Demoisselle Cranes
-     Swallows    Local Migratory Birds

-    Oriental Darters
-    Black Ibis
-    White Ibis
-    Glossy Ibis

3.4 FLORA AND FAUNA OF SURFACE WATER

In the polluted environment of streams and tanks, pisces, amphibians, reptiles, invertebrates, zooplankton and larva of many insects would be under severe stress, similarly there will be reduction in the wetland species along the banks – emergent macrophytes, floating macrophytes, submerged macrophytes and phytoplankton. May also lead to extinction and change in the species diversity and numbers.  With the loss of aquatic life due to pollution, the birds dependent on streams and tanks for food also get affected.

Streams and tanks of Nakkavagu basin support a wide range of natural communities.  Streams and tanks are important wildlife habitats and they can have economic value of fisheries too.  Tanks support rich and / or characteristic plant communities, invertebrates, amphibians and birds, and may even support rare species, the seasonal tanks are less important in this regard.  Habitat diversity studies are useful in measuring the quality of whole ecosystem, It is less time consuming and inexpensive.

The problems of freshwater habitats are, pollution, changes in flow regime, water depth, catchment area and reduction of habitat size.  The pollution of water is the major cause of loss of biodiversity in streams and lakes.  Because of industrial effluents entering into these water bodies, Nakkavagu does not support any significant life; many tanks have become dead, supporting only anaerobic life, exceptionally in some cases.  Some of the tanks whose catchment area is free from industrial activity are supporting vibrant life.  The relationship between diversity of species and the degree of water pollution is vice versa.

The biodiversity of some streams and tanks of Nakkavagu basin is given in (table 3.3).

Table 3.3    Biodiversity of streams and tanks.
S.No.    Name    1    2    3    4    5    6    7    8    9    10    11    12    13    14    15    16    17    18    19    20    21    22
MACROPHYTES
1    Ceratophyllum demersum    A    A    A    A    P    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A
2    Ipomoea aquatica    A    A    P    A    P    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    P    A    P    A    P    A    A    P    A    A
3    Carex species    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    P    A    A    A    A    P    P    A
4    Cyperus species    A    P    P    A    A    P    A    P    A    P    P    P    P    A    P    A    P    A    A    P    P    A
5    Hydrialla veritcillate    A    A    P    A    P    P    A    P    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
6    Ottella alismoides    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A
7    Vallisneria spiralis    A    A    A    A    P    P    A    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A
8    Iris pseudocorus    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A
9    Juncus heterophylla    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A
10    Lemna minor    A    A    P    A    P    P    A    A    A    P    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A
11    Spirodela polyrhyza    A    A    A    A    P    P    A    P    A    P    P    A    A    A    P    A    P    A    A    A    A    A
12    Nelumbo leutea    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A
13    Agrostis species    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A
14    Agrostis    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    P    A    P    A    A    P    P    A
15    Eichhornia crassipes    A    A    P    A    P    A    A    A    P    P    P    P    P    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A
16    Potamogeton perfoliatus    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
17    Potamogeton penctinatus    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
18    Potamogeton crispus    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
19    Ipomoea species    A    A    P    A    P    A    A    P    P    P    P    P    P    A    P    A    A    A    A    P    P    A

S.No.    Name    1    2    3    4    5    6    7    8    9    10    11    12    13    14    15    16    17    18    19    20    21    22
20    Nymphaea species    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A
21    Scirpus species    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    P    A
Algae
22    Chara vulgaris    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
23    Nitella gracillis    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
24    Cladophora glomerati    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    P    P    P    P    A    P    A    P    A    P    A    A    P    P    A
25    Spirogyra communia    A    A    P    A    P    P    A    P    P    P    P    A    P    A    P    A    P    A    A    P    P    A
26    Spyrogyra varians    A    A    P    A    P    P    A    P    A    P    A    P    P    A    P    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
27    Oscillatoria formosa    A    A    P    A    P    P    A    P    P    P    A    A    P    A    P    A    P    A    A    P    P    A
28    Oscillatoria limosa    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    P    P    P    A    P    P    A    P    A    P    A    A    A    P    A
29    Oscillatoria putrida    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    P    P    P    P    P    P    A    P    A    P    A    A    A    P    A
30    Hydrodictyon reticulata    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    P    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
31    Zygema species    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
FISH AND OTHER ANIMALS
32    Heteropterans    A    P    P    P    P    P    A    P    P    P    P    P    P    A    P    A    P    A    A    P    P    A
33    Coleopterans    A    A    P    A    P    P    A    P    P    P    P    A    P    A    A    A    P    A    A    P    P    A
34    Cladocerans    A    P    P    A    P    P    A    A    P    P    P    A    P    A    P    A    P    A    A    P    P    A
35    Gastropods    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
36    Bivalves    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
37    Cyprinus carpeo    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
38    Labeo rohita    A    A    A    A    P    P    A    A    A    P    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
39    Labeo bata    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
40    Clarias species    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
41    Channa punctatus    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    A    P    A    A
Biological Score(Species Present)    0    3    26    1    15    32    0    12    11    24    11    8    26    0    14    0    14    0    0    28    13    0
Biological Score (%)    0    7    63    2.5    37    78    0    29    27    59    27    20    63    0    34    0    34    0    0    68    32    0
(Source: CPCB report (1998))
A – Absent, P – Present
Index
Lakes        River or stream
1    Khazipally cheru    14    Bollaram near Sultanpur
2    Gandigudem cheru    15    Isukavagu U/s CETP
3    Nagula cheru    16    Isukavagu D/s outfall near Pocharam
4    Krishnareddipet cheru    17    Isukavagu at bridge
5    Mukta kunta    18    Nakkavagu at Bachuguda after confluence with Pamulavagu
6    Aminpur cheru    19    Nakkavagu at Sultanpur bridge
7    Bollaram cheru    20    Manjira U/s Nakkavagu confluence
8    Khazipalli village cheru    21    Manjira D/s Nakkavagu confluence
9    Saka cheru    22    Nakkavagu before Manjira confluence
10    Mutangi cheru
11    Isnapur cheru
12    Chitkul cheru
13    Lakdaram cheru

(Note: The biological score in percentage is directly related to the degree of toxicity of the surface waters.  Zero score percentage indicates highly toxic and almost devoid of any life.)

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter is aimed to study the impact of pollution by the industries in and around Patancheru upon the physical environment of Nakkavagu basin. The physical environment plays an important role in the mobilisation, dispersion, dilution or concentration of the pollutants in the environment. Regarding the physical environment and on relevant themes several people have worked, some of them are (Tank (1973), David (1977), Cooke (1978), Howard (1978) and Leveson (1980)). Physical environment studies help in understanding the present status of pollution and also the carrying capacities of the study area with respect to pollution. The geology, topography, soils, climate, meteorology and air quality are the parameters considered in this chapter for describing the physical environment of Nakkavagu basin.

2.2 GEOLOGY

The geology of the area plays an important role in the mobility and concentration of pollutants released into the environment. The composition and the type of rocks (Igneous or Sedimentary or Metamorphic) and the structures in them such as joints, fractures, fissures, etc. are important in understanding the behaviour of pollutants.

In the Nakkavagu basin and its surrounding areas, the Archaean Peninsular granites and gneisses form the basement, which is overlaid by the Deccan basalt, is the basic geology of the area (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 The Geological Succession

Age

Description

The grey and pink granite outcrops are seen around Patancheru, on the western and south-western parts, they are overlaid by isolated cappings of basalt and laterite. Granite outcrops in Nakkavagu stream-bed near Bachuguda are shown in Photo 2.1. Dyke outcrops are not seen along the Nakkavagu stream (although dolerite dykes and quartz veins are observed in adjacent areas) because of thick alluvium deposited along the stream. The flood plains of the streams are occupied by recent and older alluvium, mainly consisting of sand, silt and clay in different proportions and thickness varying from 25 to 30 feet. The recent sand and gravel deposited along the banks of Nakkavagu near Bachuguda is shown in Photo 2.2. The lateral extent of alluvium along Nakkavagu is about 250 to 500 meters. Alluvium is mainly found along Nakkavagu near these villages, they are Pocharam, Ganapathigudem, Bachuguda, Arutla, Peddakanjerla and Inole. Black cotton soils derived from the basalt occupy the lower reaches, mainly to the western and north-western parts of Patancheru. The percentage of outcrop exposure is less around Patancheru and at higher contour levels granite outcrops are exposed in the form of kopjes, tors and sheet rocks.

The outcrops are largely exposed to the north-western parts of Patancheru which are studied in detail by Sarvotham and Leelanandam (1987), reveals the nature of Peninsular granite and gneisses and other lithological units. The Peninsular granites and gneisses studied in this region is classified as granodiorite, granite, adamellite (quartz-monzonite), monzodiorite and alkali feldspar granite, which are emplaced as discrete plutons; they form part of a composite batholith and contain inclusions of tonalite quartz-diorite and amphibolite. Alkali feldspar granite intrudes and truncates all the above litho-units, and represents the youngest of the granitic emplacements. A swarm of dolerite and gabbro dykes intruding into the granites and gneisses. At least two sets of dykes are discernable; one set is pre-alkali feldspar granite and the other of post- alkali feldspar granite ages. The older set of dykes are metamorphosed and intruded by alkali feldspar granite veins, while the younger dykes are unaffected (Sarvotham and Leelanandam, 1987). Petrographic and petrochemical studies indicate that the Medak area (along with the adjoining terrain) is dominated by potassic granites, (Bhaskar Rao et al, 1983 and Naqvi et al, 1983).

The structures have a control on the local topography and hydrogeology of the area. Fractures and joints in granites are responsible for the formation of huge boulders and other geomorphic structures such as tors. The width of the joints varies, at places they are 1 to 2 meters wide. The joints filled with weathered material are important, as they are good aquifers. These granitoids show a prominent two to three sets of joints in NNW-SSE, N-S and NE-SW directions. The lineaments of the region are in NNE-SSW, NE-SW and NW-SE directions mainly and very few are in E-W and N-S directions, which are represented by the flow of streams and the dykes and shear zones. The quartz reefs have the trend of NNE-SSW, NE-SW, N-S and a few are in the E-W directions. Dolerite dykes are emplaced in the trend of NW-SE, NE-SW, E-W and N-S.

2.3 TOPOGRAPHY

The topography of an area also influences the drainage system and the groundwater movement. The Nakkavagu basin forms a peneplain surface of the ancient Deccan Peninsula that had undergone several cycles of erosion, deposition and upliftment. Sporadic granitic tors, kopjes and sheets of bedrock are seen in the region. The lands are rolling plains interspersed with stony wastes and open scrubs. Isukavagu, Pamulavagu and Nakkavagu mainly drain the basin. The slope is from east to west up to Nakkavagu and it is south to north and north-west up to Manjira river. The land has a slope of 0.5 percentage. The relief of the basin is about 140 meters. The lowest contour is 500 meters above mean sea level (msl) lies near Gaudcherla at the confluence point with Manjira River. The highest contour passing through the Nakkavagu basin is 640 meters above mean sea level. The highest point 648 meters above mean sea level lies to the North of Gumadidala village, located to the eastern part of Nakkavagu basin.

2.4 SOILS
Nakkavagu basin has rich diverse and fertile soils (Table 2.2 and Figure 2.1).

Table 2.2 The soil of Nakkavagu basin as classified by ICRISAT, Patancheru.

Sr.No

Type of series

Description

(Source: EIA report on the proposed Thermal power plant by National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) at Shankarpalli, M/s Kirloskar Consultants Limited, Pune, 1996-97.)

To sum up the black soils comprising of clay loam’s, clays and silty clays are found in the low-lying areas and along the river-banks. Alluvial black cotton soils are found along most stream flood plains (Photo 2.3), while secondary black cotton soils are present in the upland areas in basaltic terrain. The upland areas mainly comprise of red soils, loamy sands and sandy clay loams. The soils in Sangareddy, Patancheru and Ramachandrapuram mandals of Medak mainly comprises of clayey loams, clays and silty clay. They are moderate to well drained and are suitable for cultivation by irrigation.

Black cotton soils are locally known as ‘Regadi matti’. These types of soils develop deep wedge shaped open cracks, helps in tapping the atmospheric nitrogen too. They have the moisture retaining capacity and are best suitable for dry land farming. Black cotton soils are inherently more fertile then red soils. Black soils are slightly saline to alkaline, whereas red soils are neutral. Black cotton soils are suitable for crops like cotton, rice, sugarcane, and other kharif and rabi crops. Red soils are suitable for horticultural crops. Alluvium is mainly suitable for paddy. Salts dissolved and deposited in the valleys will increase soluble salt content in the soils in low-lying areas. Soils are slightly calcareous in areas immediately adjacent to Nakkavagu and more calcareous in the upper reaches of soil profile, forming salt incrustations (Photo 2.4 and 2.5). Saline soils lead to relatively poor germination and leads to physiological drought, thereby effecting the growth of the plants. The industrial effluents caused phyto-toxicity to the crops and also total crop failures. The analysis data of the soils along Nakkavagu are presented in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Soil analysis of the fields along Nakkavagu area.

Ranges of soil reaction to Electrical Conductivity (in micromho / cm)

2.5 CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY

The meteorological data is important in interpreting the air quality and dispersion pattern of pollution. Analysis of recorded historical meteorological data is important in predicting the likely climatic scenario of the region. The climate of the region is broadly divided into four seasons.

· Pre-monsoon season : March to Mid of June

· Monsoon season : Mid of June to end of September

· Post-monsoon season : October to Mid December

· Winter season : Mid of December to end of February

The data is obtained from the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) – meteorological station located at Begumpet 25 kilometers to the east of Patancheru. It is equipped to observe pressure, temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, evaporation, wind speed and direction, duration of cloud cover, etc. It is in operation since 1891. The synthesised data is pertaining to the period between 1985 and 1994. Rainfall data, for the study area was collected from the local recording stations at Patancheru, Jinnaram and Ramachandrapuram Mandals, rainfall and temperature data of Sangareddy Mandal was also collected.

2.5.1 Temperature

Temperature conditions of the region has an influence on movement of air, precipitation, formation of fog, evaporation rate, atmospheric pressure, etc., therefore temperature influences directly or indirectly the dispersion, concentration or dilution of pollutants released into the environment.

January is the coldest season with mean daily minimum temperature at 10.3 0 C. Between March and May is the hottest season with increasing day and night temperatures till the onset of Monsoon. The highest pre-monsoon (May) mean maximum temperature is observed at 43.9 0 C and mean minimum temperature observed is 20.3 0 C. Onset of monsoon results in sudden drop in mean maximum temperature, for June it is 39.9 0 C. During post-monsoon season there is a slight increase in mean maximum temperature and it is 36.3 0 C in October. The climate appears enervating during daytime, with relative moisture being high. An appreciable drop in minimum temperatures are observed in nights during the post-monsoon season which is between 10.9 0 C and 14.5 0 C in comparison to the temperatures during monsoon season which is between 19.6 0 C and 20.3 0 C. Average monthly maximum and minimum temperature recordings at Sangareddy (1991-94) are presented in Figure 2.2.

2.5.2 Evaporation

The concentration of the pollutants in the effluents increases with increase in evaporation rate. The concentrated effluents are more toxic then diluted effluents. In the tropical areas one of the extensively used methods of treatment of effluents is by letting of effluents into solar – evaporation ponds, where the water gets evaporated under intense tropical sunlight, leaving behind sludge which is dried and disposed in the secure landfill sites. Such a treatment process is effective where evaporation rates are high. The evaporation rate also depends on the solar radiation, cloud cover, wind, etc.

Evaporation rate increases from February through June. A steep fall in evaporation rate is observed during the first half of south-west monsoon season. Maximum evaporation rate is observed in May at 16.2 mm with minimum occurring in November at 7.6 mm. Evaporation rate does not change much in all other seasons.

The total solar radiation levels direct and diffuse are between 15.2 MJm-2 day-1 and 24.3 MJm-2 day-1. Minimum radiation levels are recorded in the month of July and Maximum levels recorded in the month of May.

During winter season clear bright weather prevails with clear to lightly clouded skies. During the onset of south-west monsoon sky appears moderately to heavily clouded.

2.5.3 Rainfall

Dilution is an important factor in lessening the adverse impacts of pollution. Precipitation is one of the natural diluting factors of the polluted waters. The problems of salt incrustations in the soils would not exist in areas with heavy rainfall. The residence time of the pollutants in a basin would be less with heavy rainfall.

The average annual rainfall for the 10years period is 802.8 mm as recorded at IMD, Hyderabad. About 85 % of the rainfall is received during south-west monsoon season. Maximum rainy days occur in the month of July. District average rainfall from 1981-82 to 1993-94 is presented in Figure 2.3.

2.5.4 Wind Speed and Direction

Wind speed and direction are very much important in case of air pollution studies and its impact on the residential population around the industrial areas. High-speed winds disperse suspended particulate matter and other pollutants to far off places, thereby lessening the pollution in the immediate surroundings.

Light to moderate winds prevail through out the year, during early monsoon slightly stronger winds are observed. Pre-monsoon winds travel north-west in the mornings, reversal of the wind takes place in the evenings and they travel in the south-east direction (Figure 2.4). These winds in the peak of summer carrying dust and polluted gases are threat to the residents of Hyderabad, which is located to the south-east of Patancheru. Monsoon winds are predominantly in the west and west-north-west direction at 0830 and 1730 hours (Figure 2.5). The post-monsoon winds travel between north and east directions (Figure 2.6). Winter winds mainly move in the eastern and south-eastern directions and in the northern direction for few days especially in the mornings (Figure 2.7). The annual wind patterns at 0830 hours recordings are in between west and north-west direction and also in the northern direction, 1730 hours recordings are in eastern, western and northern directions (Figure 2.8). The winds in the southern and south-western directions are rare. Wind speeds are presented in Table 2.4.

To the south-east quadrant of Patancheru Hyderabad is located. The other three quadrants have rural population. Overall the people residing in the south-western quadrant of Patancheru are safe from air pollution.

Table 2.4 Most probable wind speed class.

Wind speed

(km/h)

Seasons

(Source: IMD, Hyderabad).

2.6 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY

As man consumes more air in a day then the quantity of water and food, and unlike water and food he has little choice regarding the quality of air he breaths. The quality of air is important to all the living things on earth.

The air quality data of various locations in and around Patancheru town and Bonthapally areas are presented in Table 2.5 and average air quality data recorded for three months period recorded at Patancheru and Lakdaram are presented in Table 2.6. The Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) is high in Patancheru beyond the permissible limit of CPCB; this could be the resultant effect of industries and the movement of vehicles on the busiest National Highway-9. SO2 and NOX values are well within the limits at all locations prescribed by CPCB. Patancheru is showing relatively higher concentration of all the parameters. Carbondioxide and other gases released by the vehicular movement and the industrial activity may contribute for acid rains and smog in the area.

Table 2.5 Ambient air quality (random)

Near NH9 bridge over Nakkavagu, Patancheru Mandal

Date: 18-11-97 Time: 12pm to 6pm

Near Pocharam Junction at NH-9

Date: 11-11-97 Day time 6 hours

(Source: Yegna Envirochem Pvt. Ltd, Hyderabad (1997-98)).

Table 2.6 Ambient air quality (December 1994 to February 1995)

SPM (200)

SO2 (80)

NOX (80)

(Source: EPTRI, Hyderabad (1995).

1.1 GENERAL

Water is an essential resource for sustenance of life on earth. It is needed for many human activities, including agriculture, domestic and industrial use, transport and recreation. The pollution of water resources from industrial sources is the point of concern. Earth is an eternal source of life giving water and therefore there is need for protection of the water from pollution and judicious use of the precious water resource.

The use of aquatic ecosystems as sink for the effluvia of civilisation is by no means new. Even in Greek mythology, one of the tasks of Hercules was to cleanse the Augean stables within a single day. These stables contained a great wealth of cattle and had never been cleansed. Hercules harnessed the River Alpheus and ran it through the stables and washed them out quickly. Aristotle noticed white filamentous threadlike organisms in polluted water 2,400 years ago. We know these today as the sewage fungus complex. Imperial Rome in Augustine times had a population over one million people. The high population densities required some means of dealing with their domestic wastes; therefore they developed very high degree of household water carriage system (Clapham Jr., 1981). The classic example from Indian sub-continent is the sewerage system developed about five thousand years ago, during the Harappan and Mohenjodaro civilisations. These systems are prerequisite for the health and hygiene.

A concern for nature and natural resources and its management is not at all a new concept for Indians. Admiration of nature and the urge to concern and protect it has been part of our civilisation. India’s wealth of literature, scriptures and folklore are replete with examples which show that our ancestors were environmentally conscious and advocated concepts of sustained usage of resources through many social customs, myths, taboos, traditions and religion. The rock edicts of emperor Ashoka (273-232 BC) are probably the first ever governmental directive towards environmental protection in recorded history. But in spite of such an impressive beginning, the conservation movement in India is less then two decades old (Singh and Subramanian, 1990).

Until the Industrial Revolution population densities were low enough that the traditional methods of composting, earth closets, and so on, were adequate to solve most of the waste disposal problems. But so much waste was being generated in industrial countries such as England by the eighteenth century that the old methods simply could not keep up with the production. Garbage and excrement accumulated in the streets, and industries that had grown up along rivers to tap readily available power sources were dumping their by-products into the same rivers. Early in the nineteenth century sewers were introduced into industrialised countries and quickly became the norm (Hynes, 1960; Tarr and McMichael, 1977). The dumping of pollutants into the environment has increased because of the intense industrial development to cater the demands of ever growing population.

Earths surface is the interface between the atmospheric agencies and the internal processes affecting the surface from within, along with the physical properties of the geological material forming the earths surface and landscape and controlling the movement of surface and sub-surface water. A careful study and analysis of such factors is therefore, imperative for rational decisions to delimit anthropogene interference’s to minimise imbalances or degradation of the natural balances of the ecosystem which had taken millions of years to stabilise. Since most of these aspects are related to the terrain and its characteristics, earth sciences have a vital role in any such complex evaluation. In the field of Environmental Geology, Geological Survey of India (GSI) commenced work in 1972, much before environment came on national agenda, with a view to generating baseline data consideration of all aspects of geo-environmental study, to facilitate evaluation of the environmental changes consequent to specific future developmental activities (Shankar, 1998).

The stress imposed upon the environment by civilisation becomes primarily reflected in the water environment. The total water used per person is increasing with the development of man. All uses of water result in increase of dissolved components, all used water has to be disposed of somewhere, and all disposed water reaches the existing water reservoirs, lakes, rivers, groundwater and the ocean. Hence, and intrinsic part of water use is water contamination, i.e. addition of components that were not there before (Mazor, 1991). Data on the behaviour of heavy metals and other inorganic and organic pollutants in water environment and their ultimate distribution is important.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a structured and useful planning tool to identify and evaluate the potential impacts (beneficial / adverse) of developmental projects on the environmental system. It is useful aid for decision making based on understanding of the environmental implications including social, cultural and aesthetic concerns which could be integrated with analysis of the project costs and benefits (Singh et al. 1994). Government of India through a notification on Environment Impact Assessment gazetted in January 1994, has made a statutory requirement of Environment Impact Assessment of certain identified activities whether it is in public or private sector.

Impact assessment originated with a desire for strong change in both philosophy and the methodology of resource management. It is assumed that a systematic, focussed, interdisciplinary use of science may improve the quality of planning and decision-making (Caldwell, 1988). Environmental Impact Assessment methodology is selected for the research work in order to assess the multi-dimensional impacts of industrial pollutants especially from the effluents released into Nakkavagu basin.

Water interacts with all other components of ecosystem i.e., geology, soils, weather and climate, flora and fauna. The pollution of water causes impact not only on the above but also on socio-economic and cultural environment. Industries cause pollution of natural resources, through the indiscriminate release of effluents. In one such case, effluents released by industries into the environment in Nakkavagu basin devastated the environment of the basin. Industrialisation had an adverse impact on the lives of people in Nakkavagu basin. Nakkavagu (Photo 1.1) is a tributary of Manjira River, which drains the water of highly industrialised zone of Patancheru area. The Manjira River finally joins with the river Godavari.

1.2 LOCATION AND EXTENT OF THE AREA

Patancheru town is one of the main industrial area located 30 kms to the north-west of Hyderabad, Capital City of Andhra Pradesh, on National Highway No. 9 (NH-9). It lies around 78 0 15’ East longitude and 17 0 32’ North latitude and it is part of Medak District in Andhra Pradesh. Patancheru industrial area in this context implies Patancheru, Bollaram, Pashamylaram, Khazipalli, Gaddapotharam, Bonthapalli and Chitkul industrial clusters, which are located in and around Patancheru town and in Nakkavagu basin. Nakkavagu basin lies between the longitudes 78 0 05‘ and 78 0 25‘ East and the latitudes 17 0 25‘ and 17 0 45‘ North. The basin area extends over 734 sq. kms (Figure 1.1 and 1.2). Nakkavagu basin is covered in Patancheru, Ramachandrapuram, Jinnaram and Sangareddy Mandals of Medak District and to a lesser extent in Rangareddy District (Figure 1.3), and found in ‘Survey of India’, toposheet numbers – 56K/2, 56K/3, 56K/6 and 56K/7. Patancheru is easily accessible as it is located on one of the busy National Highway’s (NH-9) and many bus services are available from Hyderabad and Secunderabad.

1.3 INDUSTRIAL SCENARIO IN MEDAK DISTRICT

Andhra Pradesh with 173 most polluting industries stood fourth in India after, Maharashtra (335), Uttar Pradesh (224) and Gujarat (177) (Confederation of Indian industries (CII), 1996). In India maximum amount of pollution comes from pharmaceutical and sugar industries. Andhra Pradesh is the leading state in India in the production of pharmaceuticals and majority of them are located in Medak District.

Medak District is one of the most industrialised districts in the country, and has the largest number of industries in the State (Figure 1.4 and 1.5). The type of industries includes bulk drugs, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, plastics, ceramics, boilers, industrial alloys, industrial chemicals, electronic goods and computers. There are about 3905 small-scale industries and about 192 medium to large-scale industries in the District (Chandra, 1997). Within the District, Patancheru Mandal is having maximum number of industries.

In Medak District, under the scheme of encouraging industries in backward districts, Central Government gave 20% concession to units on electricity bills and allowed changing their sales tax dues into loans. These were made interest free for 10 years. This facility continued till December 1989. State Government also introduced subsidies for promoting industries in the District. The Andhra Pradesh Industrial Infrastructure Corporation (APIIC) had set up industrial estates at Bonthapally, Bollaram and Patancheru.

Patancheru industrial area which includes Patancheru, Bollaram, Pashamylaram, Khazipalli, Gaddapotharam, Bonthapalli and Chitkul industrial clusters, the changes in physico-chemical and biological properties of water brought about by the release of effluents by those industries resulted in pollution of the water environment. There are about 118 industries in Patancheru IDA and 110 industries in Bollaram IDA, which are working presently, in addition to other satellite industries in Nakkavagu basin. There are two Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs) located in Nakkavagu basin at Patancheru and Bollaram. The pollution in Nakkavagu basin is the sum result of direct or indirect contribution of all the industries located in Nakkavagu basin.

Among the industrial areas, one of the most important industrial areas in Medak District is Patancheru Industrial Development Area (IDA). Starting from Ramachandrapuram village boundary, opposite to International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru industrial area spreads over vast stretch of land in and around Patancheru. Measuring about 56.176 acres, this industrial area is divided into 576 plots and was developed in five phases. Many of the polluting industries are in the Phases I, II, and IV. Phases III and V house only non-polluting small-scale engineering industries. Now there are about 300 industries in Patancheru and its surrounding Mandals (Ramachandrapuram (R.C.Puram), Jinnaram and Sangareddy). Patancheru industrial area development and related issues are given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Landmark events of industrial development and related issues in Patancheru

1962 – Industrialisation started in Patancheru.

1974 – Creation of Andhra Pradesh Industrial Infrastructure Corporation (APIIC).

1975 – Patancheru industrial estate established.

1976 – Acceleration of the growth of the industries.

1980 – Indira Gandhi wins MP seat from Medak constituency and became Prime Minister, encouraged the industrial development in this constituency (Patancheru, Ramachandrapuram, Narsapur, Gummadidala and Sadashivapet.)

1983-84 – The impact of pollution upon the local residents noticed, as reported largely in press.

1986 – An incident led to agitation against industrial pollution – A 75 year old man’s legs got burnt when he accidentally stepped into the chemicals dumped along the roadside. The subsequent incidents are: On 10th June and 16th July – people protested through hunger strikes, on 16th of August- A Public rally was organised – for seeking immediate redress of the grievance, on 21st August-road blocking or ‘Rasta Roko’ was organised at Patancheru on NH-9 to high light the gravity of the problem of pollution – State cabinet passed a resolution to alleviate the problem of farmers.

1987 – 12th September- another road blocking or ‘Rasta Roko’ agitation took place in which 10,000 ryots participated to protest against pollution by industries in Patancheru.

1991 – National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) submits a report to Supreme Court and recommended about 32.2 crores as compensation to the suffering ryots.

1993 – ‘Scientific evaluation of pollution around Patancheru and Bollaram industrial areas’, a report published by DDS (an NGO), Hyderabad.

1994 – Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP), started functioning.

1996 – State government declares a ban on new industries in the region.
1998 – ‘Effluent Management in Nakkavagu drainage Basin’, CPCB, report on pollution.

1.4 BACKGROUND

Environmental problems in the area forced the Government, Non-Governmental Institutions, and individuals to carryout studies on various aspects of pollution for the past more than two decades. Many articles were published in various newspapers and non-scientific magazines till now. As per the directions of the judiciary, a number of reports were produced and submitted from time to time, based on cases filed for relief from environmental pollution by farmers and environmental action groups. Some of the most important studies are discussed below.

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur, prepared a report titled – ‘Report on Environmental Pollution caused by Patancheru and Bollaram industrial estates in nearby villages of Medak District, Andhra Pradesh’, (1991), based on studies and observations of five scientists. This report concentrated mainly on human health and mortality, and their economic losses due to crop failures and death of domestic animals (cattle, sheep etc.,) due to industrial pollution (NEERI report, 1991).

‘Scientific evaluation of pollution around Patancheru and Bollaram industrial areas’, Medak District, Andhra Pradesh (Biksham, Shiva Kumar and Mohan Reddy, Deccan Development Society (DDS) report, 1993). This report covered all the major and trace elemental concentrations in the water environment of parts of Nakkavagu basin. Data evaluation is done using statistical techniques; the mobility of elements in the hydrogeological system is presented in contour diagrams. It also covered the social aspects.

Honorable Mr. Justice J. Jeevan Reddy, while disposing writ petitions, appointed a Committee of Experts comprising, Prof. O.S. Reddy, Retired Professor, Osmania University, Shri P. Ramayya Naidu, Retired Chief Engineer (PH) and former Member Secretary, APPCB, and Prof. N. Sreeramulu of JNTU. They have visited fifteen industries in Patancheru to verify whether the modified directions given by the Government of Andhra Pradesh are complied with or not in respect of each of them (O.S.Reddy Committee report, 1990).

Shri D. Appa Rao, District Judge, Medak at Sangareddy, Andhra Pradesh, submitted a report to the Supreme Court of India pursuant to the direction in I.A.2 in WP (Civil) no. 1056 of 1990 (Appa Rao report, 1996).

Sri P. Lakshma Reddy, District Judge, Medak District, at Sangareddy, submitted a report to the Supreme Court of India (Lakshma Reddy report, 1996).

A group of scientists from CPCB prepared a comprehensive report on effluent management in Nakkavagu drainage basin in four phases and submitted it to the Supreme Court of India (CPCB report, 1998).

It is reported that Arsenic is mainly released by some of the industries through their untreated industrial effluents at Common Effluent Treatment Plant. The discharge from CETP shows very high values of Arsenic, which is directly released in Peddavagu (Isukavagu), joining the Nakkavagu, and finally meets Manjira River (Govil et al. 1998).

1.5 SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM

Patancheru industrial area in this context is defined as all those industries located in Nakkavagu basin covering mainly Patancheru and other Mandals (R.C.Puram, Jinnaram, and Sangareddy), that are letting their effluents directly or indirectly into the Nakkavagu basin. Present work is mainly to assesses the impact of polluted waters from industries on Nakkavagu basin area, based on Environmental Impact Assessment studies of the polluted waters of Patancheru industrial area (Figure 1.6).

This work is predominantly based on the principles of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and to some extent confirms the broad principles of Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA).

The present environmental situation is the result of the activity of existing industries and also of those that were closed. Studies of some of the industries were considered which use hazardous raw material in the production, as it is not possible to evaluate the impact of pollution caused by each individual industry.

All the existing parameters to assess environmental impact, physical, biological, socio-economic and cultural and water environments were considered for the Nakkavagu basin area, which gives an insight into the present carrying capacity of Nakkavagu basin (i.e. the sustainable development of the region). The present work is an integrated approach to assess the impact of water pollution and to some extent other kinds of pollution on Nakkavagu basin. This kind of assessment might help in taking a decision for further industrialisation or closure of some of the most polluting industries, in order to curtail further deterioration of the Nakkavagu basin environment.

1.6 METHODOLOGY

This work has been carried out between August 1995 and August 1998, covering various parts of Nakkavagu basin. The study includes literature survey, reconnaissance survey, secondary data collection, informal discussions (Photo 1.2), and fieldwork, involving geology, soils, tanks and bio-diversity, and collection of water samples for analysis, and interpretation.

Physical, chemical, and biological nature of the environment was assessed through primary and secondary sources of information. It includes water sample collection during Pre-Monsoon or Summer (S-Data), Monsoon or Rainy (R-Data) and Post-Monsoon or Winter (W-Data) periods for studying various aspects of chemical pollution in surface and groundwater samples

The sample locations were selected in three phases according to their importance. These selected locations are useful in the characterisation of the surface water and groundwater pollution of Nakkavagu basin. Among the sample locations selected in three phases except few locations, all other locations are discrete.

Reconnaissance survey was followed by extensive and intensive fieldwork. During the fieldwork, water samples were collected from Nakkavagu and its tributaries, and also from dug wells and borewells. pH of the samples were analysed by using calomel electrode with a standard digital pH meter. Other general water quality parameters such as Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Total Hardness (TH) are analysed as per the standards of American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association (AWWA) and American Pollution Control Federation (APCF), (1975). The amount of TDS present in the samples was determined by evaporating the sample to dryness at 1000C. The estimation of COD of the wastewaters was carried out by employing dichromate method of standard methods. BOD of the wastewaters is estimated by adopting modified Whinkler’s method for analysing the initial and final levels of dissolved oxygen in the test sample. The samples were seeded with an acclimatized sewage seed developed in the laboratory by freshly collecting raw sewage and aerating the same with the addition of small quantities of raw waste for a period of one week to 10 days. The amount of TH present in the samples was determined by the standard titration method using EDTA.

The parameters such as Sulphates (SO4-), Chlorides (Cl-) and Fluoride (Fl-) were estimated with ions selective electrodes, using Orion ion analyser. Trace metals are estimated by ICP-MS (Jopiom Yvon 24 (JY24) model) using 18mega-ohm conductance water as an internal standard. The fieldwork includes study of streams and tanks, and their ecology, geology, soils, and topography of the basin, including cropping pattern and bio-diversity of the region.

The primary and secondary water sample analysis data is subjected to multivariate data analysis was processed using the software ‘SYSTAT for Windows, 1995’. Basic statistical data such as minimum value, maximum value, range, median, mean and standard deviation etc., were also generated using the same software. The good literature published on environmental data analysis was useful in interpretation and presentation of the data (Bajpai (1992), Davison (1992), Hewitt (1992), Hopke (1992), Thompson (1992), Young (1992), Liabastre (1992), Reeve (1994), Bryman (1995) and Lakshminarsaiah (1996)).

A Pearson correlation of zero indicates that neither of two variables can be predicted from the other by using a linear equation. A Pearson correlation of +1 indicates that one variable can be predicted perfectly by a positive linear function of sample analysis data, between the sample cases gives relationship between the sample locations with similar degree of pollution and the dendrogram between the elements gives degree of association of elements in their occurrence. Factor analysis provides principal component analysis (maximum likelihood and iterand principal axis). Factor analysis data includes Eigen values, Component loadings, Variance explained by components and percentage of total Variance. The analysis data between factors is presented in Factor Loadings Plot and between Number of Factors and Eigen-value is presented as Scree Plot. Factor analysis helps in identifying the groups of elements from common sources.

To characterise the pollution of Nakkavagu basin, primary and secondary data is used. Sample analysis data pertaining to summer, rainy and winter seasons are utilised. In the month of May, seventeen samples were collected from Nakkavagu stream, Pamulavagu Isukavagu, dug well, bore wells, and effluents of Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP). A total of nineteen samples representing rainy season (R-Data) were collected in August, 1997, from Nakkavagu, Manjira River, Nizamsagar, Godavari River and other three tanks. Analysis of water samples from tanks, Nakkavagu and Isukavagu streams and Manjira River, and flow studies of Nakkavagu and quality of water in tanks was done during January 1998 representing winter season (W-Data).

For a comprehensive evaluation of pollution in Nakkavagu basin, other primary data was also considered. Data of Panchayatraj Internal Water Quality Monitoring Laboratory, Uppal, Hyderabad, of forty-one groundwater samples (G1-Data) collected in 1991, and of about twenty-six groundwater samples (G2-Data) collected by Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board (APPCB) in the year 1991. Although the data is seven years old, the analysis data of groundwater samples was considered because of their extensive coverage of the Nakkavagu basin area that helps in identifying the movement of pollutants in the ground. All the data is subjected to environmental data analysis. Secondary information from the recent works and papers published on Nakkavagu basin area is also considered.

The following types of methods have been used to perform the tasks of impact identification and summarisation:

Descriptive methods have been used based upon the facts and information collected during discussions with local people and from secondary sources.

To explain the complex nature of the pollutants and the relations between various factors simple and three-dimensional figures are used. The data is processed, simplified and presented in appropriate graphs.

Network diagrams are also used which link secondary and tertiary impacts to primary impacts; networks are directional diagrams designed to trace in two dimensions the higher-order linkages between project actions and environmental factors.

Finally checklist developed by the Environmental Evaluation System (EES) at the Batelle Columbus Laboratories, USA (Dee et al. 1973) is used with some modifications, for final evaluation of impacts with and without industries. In this assessment 36 parameters are selected (Figure 1.7). Parameter Importance Weights (PIW) represent the value of importance of each environmental parameter. The weights have been given to the 36 environmental parameters based on the degree of impact caused by the establishment of industries and associated developmental activities over the last 40 years (industrialisation started in Nakkavagu basin about 40 years back). Similarly the weights were given assessing the degree of alteration of environmental parameters that would have happened over the last 40 years, even without industries in Nakkavagu basin.

The total weight of the parameters is assumed as 1000 points. They are broadly classified into four categories namely, Ecology, Environmental Pollution, Aesthetics and Human interest. The weights are initially distributed to the four basic parameters, according to their importance. Most important – environmental pollution is given a value of 1 and next Human interest and Ecology are considered as half-important in comparison to environmental pollution so they take the value 0.5 each. Aesthetics are considered as only one-fourth important, that in comparison to environmental pollution, therefore aesthetics takes the value of 0.25. Total weight being 1000 points; accordingly they take values as such 444.44, 222.22, 222.22 and 111.11. The values are rounded to 450, 250, 200 and 100. Human interest is considered more important then ecology, so human interest is rounded to a higher value (250) and so the ecology to a lower value (200). These weights are distributed to the parameters under each sub-class as per personal judgement and upon similar lines as above, depending upon their importance.